Labeling: Using Class and Race to Understand Dynamics of Crime - Research Paper Example

Labeling: Using and Race to Understand Dynamics of Crime al Affiliation Labeling: Using and Race to Understand Dynamics of Crime Data: As earlier aforementioned, data will primarily be derived from three cities i.e. Chicago, Los Angeles and Sacramento. Specific focus will be placed on three police departments, which primarily concentrate within the three cities’ boundaries; with these being: - the LAPD (Los Angeles Police Department); the City of Chicago Police Department (CPD) and the Sacramento Police Department (SPD: California). The chief reason for the author’s choice of the three cities is partially informed by the fact that each of the three does have some or all of the qualities essential for creating conducive environments of profiling and subsequent discrimination. To be noted is that in each of the three cities, there is a presence of diverse socio-cultural and economic interaction; involving various races and social entities. Subsequently, a general profiling of the three regions of concern is in line with gaining further information on the prevailing issue of Race and Class/status quo. The three cities are hugely developed, each in a distinct manner dependent on the main economic activities. What is uncontested however, is the great national importance each of the three holds within the U.S.; and hence their preference as the paper’s points of focus. Starting with Chicago, followed by Los Angeles, and then California there will be an analysis of the general demographic statistics present, followed by specific zones that are ‘policed’ by the three departments in focus. Afterwards, will be the integration of the ‘question at hand’, to the issues uniquely embodied in these three ‘policing zones’; providing comparative analysis of how both class and race, have and continue affecting social relations. With influences on social relations, come the subsequent impacts and effects in the manner in which the justice system works; as well as the relations present in such social contexts. Chicago as the third most populous city within the U.S., it is representative of a metropolitan area home to over 9 million. Economically, it is an international hub for a number of industries, thereby enhancing its overall economic capacity. Segmented into three core areas i.e. The Loop (CBD), the South and the North; focus is on the South that is most densely populated, and based mostly on residential areas. Historically, the city was the destination of immigrants; coming in waves from Central, Eastern and Southern Europe. They were drawn to the industrial sector, with a majority being of the working class. In addition, was the influx of African-Americans, who became clustered in ‘the Black Belt’; hence the South Side becoming one of America’s largest urban black concentration areas. While White Caucasians form the majority (45%) of the population as an individual segment, they are outnumbered by the presence of other races i.e. Hispanic and African-Americans; composing 32.9% and 28.9% respectively. the rest is composed by Asians and other minorities. Crime and criminal activities in the city are mainly focused around organized crime, with fewer murder rates than other smaller cities in the U.S. Gang wars are the primary causes of such murders, mainly because of (drug-selling) territorial disputes. Further still is the presence of higher crime rates, within areas that are less-economically developed. Gangland problems are thus the major course of concern, with Chicago having witnessed gradual decrease of murders/ homicides. Statistically, firearms, stabbings and armed robbery were other factors contributing to the city’s rates; with age being a crucial indicator, as a huge percentage (40-60%) were aged between 17-25 years. 76% of the victims tended to be mainly African-Americans, who ironically composed around 77% of the general offenders. Hispanics, on the other hand, composed of 18% of the victims vis-à-vis 17.3% of the offenders. White Caucasians came third, at 5.6% being victims vis-à-vis offenders. A crucial indicator was the presence of prior arrest histories, concerning both victims and offenders in general confirmed by the greater involvement of males than females. Whites were also less involved or included in crime-related contexts probably because of their specific neighborhood habitation. Statistics dated 2005 portray that in terms of gang-related murder victims, 70% were African-Americans (Blacks hereafter), 26% Hispanic and 3% Caucasians (White hereafter); with 93% being male. Offenders in such cases were 76% Blacks, 20% Hispanic and 3% White, with 99% being male. Domestic-related murder victim statistics also confirmed a trend, with 79% being Blacks, 10% Hispanic and 11% White. In terms of violent-armed robbery, victims were 68% Blacks, 13% Hispanic, 19% White, and 89% of that being male. Offenders on their part in this context were 87% Blacks, 9% Hispanic and 4% white with 93% of the total being male. To be noted is that the above rates are majorly divergent, based in the particular area of concern. The Southern side tends to have neighborhoods that are less educated, poorer, and mainly African-American. Majorly so, is the influence and impacts of gang-based drug dealing, which complicate issues in neighborhoods such as Englewood (south side) and Austin (west-side). Here, homicides and crime in general is averaged at 10 times higher than the other sections of the city (Janes, 2011). As a result, education has suffered immensely, with the prevailing social contexts being detrimental to overall academic performance. Further still, has been the huge impact on social welfare, in terms of hospitalization and medical care, counseling and general social policing. Los Angeles (LA), as the most populous city in Southern California, is the epicenter of both the Greater Los Angeles Area and the larger Santa Ana-Long Beach-Los Angeles metropolitan statistical area. As a result, it is a highly populated metropolitan area being known as the most ethnically divergent of cities within the nation. It is one of the most economically diverse centers within the U.S., drawing on a broad range of industry sectors. In terms of race and ethnicity, differing statistics to those of Chicago are drawn, with the presence of over 224 different language-speakers being identified representing over 140 nations. This uniquely resulted in the formation of ethnic enclaves i.e. Little Ethiopia, Tokyo and Armenia Chinatown, Thai Town, Korea town and Historical Filipino town. However, both Whites and Hispanics predominantly outnumber the rest of the communities present therein. Under the Hispanic segment, Mexicans are the largest (36%), further followed by Salvadorans and Guatemalans at 6% and 3.6% respectfully. Concentration of this group, abate being spread throughout the city, is mainly concentrated within the East region, which has long been habituated by this ethnic communities. African-Americans do have their largest establishment in South Los Angeles inclusive of industrial neighborhoods of Watts and Crenshaw. During the 1980s, an influx of immigrants from Central America and Mexico resulted in the Latino community outnumbering Blacks. Crime in the city and state in general, was mainly dominated by organized crime i.e. the Los Angeles crime family (American Mafia); which latter on declined gradually, giving rise to various Hispanic and Black gangs. It is these gangs, which continue to predominantly feature in the LAPD statistics categorizing an approximate 450 gangs that contribute the estimated 45,000-gang members. The ‘Bloods and Crips’ (both African-American street gangs), trace their origin to South LA; and are a major contributing factor to crime and violence in the city. Latinos also feature i.e. the Mara Salvatrucha (mainly Salvadoran members) and the Surenos (Mexican) street gangs, which are mainly found within, and around the 18th Street. Consequently, the city is frequently referred to as – the Gang Capital of America. Crime in the city has been fundamentally an issue of Southern California, with particular concern for Angelenos (predominantly Hispanic). Watts has also been a significant zone of equal agitation, as showcased in the Watts Riots of 1965. However, a major issue of the region, was, and still continues being the ‘after-effects’ of the 1984-90 ‘Crack Epidemic’. This was when crack cocaine became abused on a large-scale. As a result, deaths and drug-related violence increased to unprecedented level with South Central being the focal point of the problem that had soon consumed major cities. Thus, frequent police raids would be carried out in the area, where new gangs emerged while previously unknown ones morphed. This necessitated the formation of the CRASH – Community Resources against Street Hoodlums (Drayton, 2013). As a special LAPD unity, its primary task was in combating escalating gang problems and violence the secondary focus on narcotics trade. Unfortunately, the Rampart scandal of 1990s came to discredit the noble cause of this unit, with various officers being implicated in a wide range of misconduct especially against target/ select populations. This was represented in the form of planted (drugs) evidence, perjury, unprovoked beatings and shootings, bank robbery, suspects’ framing, and the stealing and subsequent dealing of narcotics. Above all was the deliberate cover-up of these activities that further strained the race relations present. Rap music, movies and TV shows’ portrayal of the area as a ‘no-go-zone’ further affected negatively on residents and specifically two minority groups. Prevailing race relations came to the fore during the 1992 riots, which proved too difficult for the LAPD; hence the need for both the U.S. Marine Corps and the California National Guard. Of all areas, South Central is deemed the most notorious, having an extensive gang-violence history. Such gang-activities continue abate a steady decline in crime. These gangs, especially the ‘Crips and Bloods’, are traceable to the presence of both racial segregation and poverty; further fueled by the crack-down of black political organizations during the late 1960s. A social vacuum that had been formed was unfortunately filled by these gangs. Worsening the situation was negative influence from parental incarceration, family separation and narcotics dealing. Thousands of lives became lost as a result of the ‘black-on-black’ wars, let alone the other social issues faced; majorly influencing the negative social effects present therein (Bontrager, 2013). The City of Sacramento, also in California, provides the final area of analysis; also being quite diverse as a result of its past history. Growing as a result of its strategic location during the California Gold Rush, it attracted various populations to the prevailing Native American populace. Historically, the 1st and 2nd Opium Wars, pitting China against both France and Britain; further influenced by endemic poverty in the former, drove many Chinese to immigrate to America. This resulted in the formation of Chinatown, which continued to witness much strife and racial discrimination against the Chinese Immigrants. In terms of demographics, Whites compose 45%, Blacks 14%, Hispanics 26% and Asians 18% (estimations). Despite the prevailing diversity present, crime and criminal activities are relatively low within this geographical area; propelled by the socio-economic, cultural-religious and political inclusiveness portrayed in various sectors. Economically, even immigrant populations do fair better than the two aforementioned cities, hence pivotal in understanding the core relation between poverty, the lack of opportunities, drugs, violence and prostitution etc, to the aspects of Race/ ethnicity and class. While neighborhoods are indeed also present, representing the diverse cultural aspects present, economic stability; political inclusiveness; religious input and firm educational basis have resulted in fewer causes of crime and criminal activities. Findings: Accordingly, as Peterson and Krivo (2012) portray, it is pivotal to note the similarities in terms of diverse cultures and societies being present within the three areas each as a result of various historical factors. However, differences emerge where in the latter (City of Sacramento) being heavily populated by Asians; as the next largest after the White majority, do not follow the patterns exhibited in the two aforementioned cities of Chicago and Los Angeles. Distinctive is the manner in which the other two cities have been linked with crime and criminal activities related to (criminal/ drug) gangs. These gangs, in Chicago being mainly composed of Black-Americans, and in Los Angeles by Latino gangs; as well as the ‘Crips and Bloods’; are in essence firmly linked to the insecurity and crimes committed. This hence provides the foundation of racial discrimination and segregation, un-witnessed in the City of Sacramento. From historical injustices, to issues such as unequal opportunities to education, work and politics; further compounded by the lack of key socio-cultural and religious inclination both African-Americans and their Hispanic counterparts negatively influenced through time. This is evident in the neighborhoods where they reside, with these two communities gradually accepting the stereotypes associated with their cultural heritages. In the City of Sacramento Police Department, very few cases of crimes are related to gangs or the narcotics trade. As a result, the different communities in this region are better placed in attaining equal opportunities in different sectors driving the economic sector present (Peterson & Krivo, 2012). Analysis: As a result of the unique findings above, it is evident that the City of Sacramento Police Department (SPD) is less challenged in terms of crime and criminal dynamics being influenced by the concept of Race and/ or class. The Asian (predominantly Chinese) immigrants, who had previously faced historical injustices, were later on accepted as respectable members of society. This was a result of their immense contribution to infrastructural development within the larger California area and region at large. Hence, their integration to the society present, was easier, and with less restrictions, stereotyping and negative labeling. The criminal justice department present, is thus quite different from that found in the other two arenas; with the SPD being linked to few if any, acts of discrimination, labeling and/ stereotyping while conducting official duties. However, the same does not hold true for the other two aforementioned areas both Chicago’s CPD and Los Angeles LAPD having faced various accusations on the biased nature of their conduct of official duty. As a result of the contexts present, the CPD has on many occasions, been accused of being biased against African-Americans, especially males with crimes and drug-related charges. Stereotyping, negative labeling, as well as outright racial discrimination, have all been viewed as primary reasons for the continued gang-related violence witnessed in the area under the city’s jurisdiction. Due to the industrial nature of the city, many immigrants did join in the quest for a new life. However, not all communities were accorded equal opportunity (Peterson & Krivo, 2012). This is what primarily led to the divergent nature of the society present, with unequal opportunities being heavily influential on the Black community. In the city Los Angeles, the LAPD has also had to deal with various issues in regard to negative labeling, stereotyping and outright discrimination. This has been as a result of the slightly different nature of the city’s overall standings. In L.A., crimes and criminal activities are also predominantly gang-related abate the shift from mainly black gangs, to a combination of various gangs; with Hispanic/ Latino gangs being the most dominant in these area. The statistics are similar, with the LAPD having to face various challenges, as a result of the unique nature of crime and criminal activities in their areas of jurisdiction. With both minority groups i.e. Latino and Blacks being viewed as primarily gang-affiliated, it is no wonder that their males continue experiencing differential treatment from other members of the larger American societies. This has, and still continues to be a prominent issue in the policing of these areas primarily as a result of negative discrimination and stereotyping. Certain neighborhoods (aforementioned), thus became symbolic of the strained relationships present; best representing the negative effects of historical racial discrimination, exclusion, specific targeting and labeling (Janes, 2011). Conclusion: It is the author’s view that the aforementioned three areas of focus do represent similar contexts in terms of cultural diversity. However as Bontrager (2013) alludes, in both Chicago and Los Angeles, statistics indicate worrying trends where crime and criminal activities have, and continue being associated with specific minority groups i.e. Hispanic and African-American populations in general. This is what in the past contributed to the negative profiling, labeling and stereotyping to be subsequently followed by biased discrimination and exclusion of these two minority groups. As a result, the American criminal justice system is highly laden with incarcerated individuals from these two societies with juvenile delinquency being on similar trajectories. It is essential to note that it is the author’s view that as a result of the historical injustices, poverty, hopelessness, family disintegration, substance abuse and lack of social guidance (good role modeling) that have propelled these two populations to their present day situational contexts. Recommendations and Policy Changes: The author is therefore of the view that there is need for a dynamic shift essential in alleviating the present situations. The LAPD and the CPD are all essential avenues of governance, essential in providing peace and security to all residents equitably. However, this is not often the case, due to long-held beliefs a.k.a. biases, stereotypes and negative labeling which have and continue affecting general issues of policing. As a recommendation, the author would like to first encourage the two departments to have a paradigm shift in that not all Latinos and Blacks are criminals or gang-affiliated for that matter. This will help resolve such contexts as the aforementioned Watts riots. In addition, it is essential for the two departments to go about their duties with equal treatment and fairness as a first step towards changing the prevailing societal attitudes towards general social policing issues (Bontrager, 2013). Through equal treatment and greater inclusion of the general populace, these two departments will be able to better tackle the varying issues present within their jurisdiction. However, in the overall picture, it is the duty of the state and federal government concerned, to enhance greater socio-economic equality as an avenue of enhancing better lives, fewer crimes and dashed hopes/ dreams of a better tomorrow. References Bontrager, R. S. (2013). Labels and their Impact on Social Understanding of Crime. Journal of Criminal Justice, 41(6), 426-437. Drayton, J. (2013). Protest and resistance: Label Creation. Womens Studies Journal, 27(1), 4-12. Janes, L. (2011). Do Lifelong Labels Really Help? Howard Journal of Criminal Justice, 50(2), 137-152. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2311.2010.00648.x Peterson, R. & Krivo, L. (2012). Divergent social worlds: Neighborhood crime and the racial-spatial divide. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Plumm, K. M., & Terrance, C. A. (2013). Gender-bias hate crimes: what constitutes a hate crime from a potential jurors perspective? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(7), 1468-1479. doi:10.1111/jasp.12105 Read More