Terrorism - Research Paper Example

? Terrorism al Affiliation Terrorism has existed throughout history and across different political systems. Just asthere are many ways terrorism is carried out, many definitions of the term exist. However, all kinds of terror attacks revolve around use of violent methods of execution, targeting governments and civilians, with the sole purpose of inculcating fear to force social and political changes. Terrorism began way back in the century of Judea, and it has changed in organization, financing and tactics throughout the years. For example, with the emergence of technology, terrorist groups in the twenty first century have greatly utilized this technology to make their demands. Terrorist groups evolve and adapt according to constantly changing law enforcement tactics and intelligence agencies. This is evident when we look at present day activities of these groups and the fact that some even hide behind the veil of religious groups and organizations. All states and nations need to take necessary measures to protect the rights of every individual within their authority from terrorist attacks. Flexible counterterrorist policies and strategies need to be taken in order to be able to respond to the threat of terrorism, which is divided and wide in scope. Keywords: Terrorism, Terrorists, Terror Attacks, Organization, Financing, Tactics, Technology, Law Enforcement Tactics, Intelligence Agencies, States, Nations, Measures, Counterterrorist Policies Different forms of terrorism have been practiced all through history and across different political systems. Many definitions of terrorism exist just as there are many ways of carrying it out. However, whatever the method of execution, terrorism revolves around violent methods of execution, government and civilian targets, and the sole purpose of inculcating fear to force social and political changes. Terrorist groups or insurgent groups can be made up either common civilians or governments. Governments use terrorism to extinguish battles of liberation, retain political power, and appease citizens after taking over. The practice of terrorism is believed to have begun in the ancient century of Judea. During this time, Romans and their collaborators faced their wrath by having their throats slit by Jewish men in front of the entire public (Kushner, 2003). In seventh century India, thugee cult members ceremonially throttled their victims in a practice of offering sacrifice to the Hindu goddess known as Kali (Kushner, 2003). The term terrorism appeared during the French revolution. The term was used by Edmund Burke, a British Political Philosopher, to define the situation in revolutionary Paris. White asserts that “He referred to the violence as the Reign of Terror, and he used the word terrorism to describe the actions of the new government” (2009, p.123). During the wars that took place in Napoleons reign, the meaning of terrorism begun to undergo slight transformations. The Spanish during the Peninsula War called partisans patriots, while the French called them terrorists. Thus “the meaning of terrorism shifted away from governmental repression and seemed to apply to those who resisted governments” (White, 2009, p.123). The transformation in the definition of what terrorism is continued into the nineteenth century. The nature of European violence in the 1800s changed the meaning of terrorism in the minds of western people. Transition in the history of western terrorism was spearheaded by Heinzen and Most. Western terrorism had been formed by a circle of radical revolutionaries who administered mass executions on behalf of the French government. As Spanish partisans terrorized French troops with unconventional methods after the 1807 French invasion of Spain, there was a subtle shift in the meaning of terrorism when socialists, anarchists and communists were identified as terrorists. Despite the fact the anarchists in the nineteenth century were identified as terrorist, they were no terrorists. This is because they did not strike innocent people, but rather targeted their violence towards specific people or groups. In the nineteenth century, struggles for independence in Asia, Middle East, and North Africa involved different types of terrorism. The term terrorist acquired a new meaning that is out of use. Guelke points out that “This was the meaning of terrorist as an alarmist and reflected the use made of the horror evoked by the violent events of the French revolution to damn opponents of radical reform (2006, p.189). The term was constantly used during this century to refer to violence from below and not above such as mutilation of domestic animals, and tenants’ violent actions towards agents and landowners. Organizational, theoretical, and technological factors contributed to the development of terrorism in the nineteenth century. On organizational developments, secret groups of united individuals with the aim of using violence to achieve political objectives were established. The theoretical development came about when murder was formulated and justified as the most effective way to achieve political change. The Technological development came about when “the development of the printing press which allowed fro mass production of cheap newspapers, and the invention of dynamite, were, according to many experts , instrumental in widening the impact of terrorist acts and increasing their lethality” (Ranstorp, 2007, p.57). During the twentieth century, terrorism became a worldwide phenomenon. In the 1960s for example, terrorism was experienced throughout the world. In the United Sates, radical activists formed violent groups from frustrations with the slow pace of social reforms. Throughout the nineteenth century, terrorism has changed forms and ideologies. According to White, “many Americans became acutely aware of modern terrorism after the first World Trade Center bombing in 1993 and the bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995” (2009, p.119). Since the mid-1960s, acts of terrorism have greatly increased. According to Vito, Maahs and Holmes “There have been over 7000 acts of terrorism worldwide since then with some 40% occurring in the United States and Canada” (2007, p.316). Commonly used methods include bombing, kidnapping, suicide bombs, assault, armed attacks, and arson. In the twenty first century, United States interests have been the main targets in ten percent of terrorist interests (Vito, Maahs, & Holmes, 2007, p.316). Today, reasons other than political issues have led to increased terrorism. Modern transportation and especially air transportation has made it easier for terrorists to move across continents. Modern communication technology has also made it easier for terrorists to make their demands known worldwide. Constantly changing law enforcement tactics and intelligence agencies working to defeat terrorists have led to the evolution and adaptations of terrorist groups. Today, terrorist groups are more resilient and tougher making it quite difficult to defeat them. Terror attacks today are also more sophisticated and deadly. All terrorist groups have hardcore leadership with active and loyal cadre, many active supporters, and high level of passive support. There have been shifts in the nature of terrorist groups, for example the actions and characteristics of terrorist groups have greatly changed. Today, terrorist group members hide behind the veil of trusted religious organizations making their support groups free to function with virtual freedom in most parts of the world and especially in western democracies. From this, terrorist groups are able to raise enough funds to support their operations. Tipton and Nozaki support that “This has become evident since 9/11 in tracing the pre-incident activities of the perpetrators of the attacks and their supporters, where Islamic mosques in North America and Europe were sites of fund-raising and recruiting activities” (2012, p.426). All states and nations have the responsibility of taking necessary measures to protect the rights of every individual within their authority from terrorist attacks. However, any measures taken by nations must respect the rule of law and human rights “while excluding any form of arbitrariness, as well as any discriminatory or racist treatment , and must be subject to appropriate supervision” (Council of Europe, 2002, p.8). Counterterrorist policies and strategies need to be flexible in order to be able to respond to the threat of terrorism, which is divided and wide in scope. Counterterrorism policy instruments such as intelligence, diplomacy, military force, interdiction of financial assets, and the criminal justice system need to be implemented to give defense against terrorism and also cut the roots of terrorism. Today, terrorist groups emerge from unemployed youths and adults and therefore there is need to give aid and carry out economic reforms at federal, state and local levels. This will improve the living standards of these groups and give them better things to do rather than engaging in violent activities. Counterterrorism policies also need to be geared towards manipulation in order to know the intentions of terrorists. Foreign nations need to come together and make agreements on how to fight terrorism. This way, nations can share information, exchange ideas, create contacts, and coordinate measures to defeat terrorism. Reference List Council of Europe. (2002). Guidelines on Human Rights and the Fight Against Terrorism: Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 11 July 2002 at the 804th Meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies. Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing. Guelke, Adrian. (2006).Terrorism and Global Disorder. London: I.B. Tauris &Co Ltd. Kushner, Harvey W. (2003). Encyclopedia of Terrorism. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Ranstorp, Magnus. (Eds.). (2007). Mapping Terrorism Research: State of the Art, Gaps and Future Direction. Oxford: Routledge. Tipton, Harold F. & Nozaki, Micki Krause. (Eds.). (2012). Information Security Management Handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Vito, G. F., Maahs, J. R. & Holmes, R. M. (Eds.). (2007). Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy. Sudbury: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. White, Jonathan Randall. (Eds.). (2009). Terrorism and Homeland Security. Belmont: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Read More