Evidence-Based Pharmacology - Research Paper Example

Evidence-Based Pharmacology Paper Introduction In the modern scenario, medical science has developed in a rapid manner. The advancement of medical science has resulted development of diverse treatment processes that has been invented by the respective scholars of medical science. In this context, the treatment of numerous diseases has become easier for the medical service providers. Currently, the advancement in medical science has approached towards numerous treatments procedures that have been implemented in an effective manner for treating people in an uncomplicated manner. The evidence based practice is recognized as one of the most significant approach that can be helpful in treating people in an effective manner. Evidence based practice is regarded to be a crucial part of clinical practice. From the past few years, this practice has acquired a significant place in the domain of medical science. Initially, the evidence-based practice was regard as evidences based medicine and gradually has expanded in other fields of medical science such as psychology, nursing, education and in dentistry (Neunert, Lim, Crowther, Cohen, Solberg & Crowther, 2015). Evidence-based Pharmacology is an effective process that has regarded to be very useful in treating people in an effective manner. Recently, the process of evidence-based pharmacology has become more popular among large number of heath care practitioners. It has also found that health care practitioners are highly appreciating the evidences-based pharmacology for treating several diseases. Additionally, it has been identified that evidence-based pharmacology is also efficient in treating people suffering from pneumonia. Furthermore, evidence-based pharmacology has gained more appreciation as compared to other effective treatment for pneumonia (Chung & Lau, 2015; NICE, 2014). The objective of the study is to focus over the problem and treatment process of pneumonia. The study further aims to analyze the factors causing pneumonia and discusses its impact over the health of people. Furthermore, the paper gives a brief description of entire process associated with pneumonia treatment as well as also identifies various possible treatments within the health organization. Pneumonia Evaluation and Its Possible Treatments Pneumonia is a disease that indicates towards the inflammatory condition of lungs. It can be further elaborated that the infection in the lung tissue is regard as a state of pneumonia. During the attacks of pneumonia, a lung does not function properly that is likely to cause risk on the health of concerned person. People are affected by pneumonia due to a large numbers of reasons such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, idiopathic as well as parasites. In this regard, the diagnosis of pneumonia is referred to as significant for the providing an effective treatment to the patients. Pneumonia can be diagnosed by evaluating the symptoms and signs of an acute lower respiratory tract infection. Besides, the symptom of pneumonia can also be identified through a chest X-ray that that is effective in examining any kind of infections (Lutfiyya, Henley, Chang & Reyburn, 2008). Initially the treatment of Community- acquired Pneumonia (CAP) dependent on the physical examination, laboratory results as well as characteristics of patients. However, the treatment of pneumonia has identified the need of hospitalization for medical aid. There are two types of pneumonia treatment process that are outpatient and inpatient treatment. Specifically, mentioning that the treatment of the diseases is highly depending upon types of pneumonia. The medical practitioner’s suggest patients to consume antibiotics for treating pneumonia effectively (Caballero & Rello, 2011). Assumption Inherent From Pneumonia As per the report of Ng (2012), pneumonia is regard to be one of the most vulnerable diseases among all the infectious lungs diseases. It has also identified that the pneumonia has raised the morbidity and mortality rates from the past few years. As per the point of view of Calvillo–King, Arnold, Eubank, Lo, Yunyongying, Stieglitz & Halm (2012), heart failure is recognized to be one of the major risks among the people suffering from pneumonia. Additionally, the increasing rate of mortality due to CAP is highly associated with the numerous social factors. Ng (2012), also elaborated that the young children as well as elderly population are most vulnerable to pneumonia. Ng (2012), also affirmed with the standpoint of Calvillo–King & et al., (2012) about the socio economic impact on attacks and treatments of pneumonia. As per Ng (2012), the socioeconomic status of a person is the major cause behind the death of people due to pneumonia attacks. It is more significant to state that lower income rates, lower education as well as unemployment are recognized as the most significant factors that can influence the attack and mobility rate of people due to pneumonia. Various approaches of treating Pneumonia The Community- acquired Pneumonia is refers as one of the most vital diseases that can result to death. There are a large number of approaches for treating as well as preventing pneumonia in an effective manner. In addition to this, the Community-acquired Pneumonia can be treated through following clinical approaches. It can be identified that there are two different treatment approach of pneumonia present in the field of medical science, which are highly efficient in treating people suffering from pneumonia. The two different approaches of treating pneumonia are non-pharmacological and pharmacological treatment approach. Most of the times, Community-acquired Pneumonia can be treated outside the hospital, thus it can be considered to be less critical. The management of Community- acquired Pneumonia outside the hospital is measured as an approach that has been certified by evidence based guidelines of American Thoracic Society (ATS) as well as Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) (Ng, 2012; Calvill–King & et al., 2012). In the context of non-pharmacological therapy, oxygen is used for treating pneumonia in an effective way. Contextually, the use of oxygen is regard to be one of the significant therapies that can be helpful in treating patients suffering from pneumonia. Oxygen is widely used in treating patient in hospitals as well as in home based therapy. On the other hand, pharmacological therapy is also very efficient in treating people suffering from critical situation of Community- acquired Pneumonia. Additionally, providing medicine such as antibiotics as well as vaccinations is regard to be one of the major treatment processes of the Community- acquired Pneumonia (Ng, 2012; Calvillo–King & et al., 2012). Selection of the Treatment for Pneumonia According to the report of Diaz, George, Rao, Bangura, Baimba, McMahon & Kabano (2013), pneumonia can be treating in an effective manner. It has analyzed that oral preparation of penicillin is one of the most effective treatments of pneumonia. Furthermore, use of oral preparation of penicillin is effective in case of both adult as well as for children also. As per the perception of the File (2008), it can be identified that Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is an acute infection in the lung tissue. The Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) can treated through process of outpatient setting. The outpatient setting care can be provided by accessing the care of hospitalization. According to Agweyu, Gathara, Oliwa, Muinga, Edwards, Allen, … English (2015), the empiric therapy is defined as antibiotic therapy that has been used to treat pneumonia. Specifically mentioning, treatment of pneumonia can be more complicated in case of children, since it requires more stamina and immunity power for overcoming the disease. Agweyu & et al., (2015), state that the treatment of pneumonia has been approached by applying penicillin to the patients. These studies have been adopted as a suggestion material as well as treatment guideline for pneumonia. In these research articles, the examination has been performed in a wider manner. It has also identified that researchers also adopted these articles as it has provided more significant approach in pneumonia treatment. Pathophysiology of Pneumonia The process of the development of pneumonia among the people is recognized as pathophysiology. The process of bacteria development of pneumonia requires the pathogen to reach towards the alveoli. The bacteria can also reach towards the lungs through blood and can affect other parts of the body. The bacteria of pneumonia travel form one cell to another cell. It has been found that the bacteria of pneumonia can connect the pores of the human body by travelling via one blood cell to another. This type of invasion is likely to affect the immune system (Bolea-Alamañac, Nutt, Adamou, Asherson, Bazire, Coghill,…Young, 2014). Correspondently, the weak immune system may cause affect lungs with the virus and bacteria of pneumonia. The infection of pneumonia further results into fever and other fungal infections. The attacks of pneumonia kill the offending organism as well as create barriers in developing proper immune system. This can also affect overall immunity development process in human body. The travel of bacteria from one blood cell to another blood cell results to serious illness as well as low blood pressure. This can also tends to damage the multiple organs of body including brain, kidney and heart (World Health Organization, 2012). Genomic Issues of Pneumonia Pneumonia can be treated successfully, but it has few complications that can be affect the human body. It has also been identified that bacteria of pneumonia can enter into the blood stream of human body from lungs. This process can spread infection in to other lungs that can cause an organ failure. People having any surgery earlier are also subject to infection due to the excess intake of antibiotic (NICE, 2014). Pneumonia can also be a cause of fluid accumulation within space between the tissue layers of lungs as well as the chest cavity. It has also found that if the fluid gets infectious it become more poisonous for the human health. This in turn can lead toward the situation of drainage of fluid or removal of fluid through the surgery process. The acute attacks of pneumonia can affect the people and provide them with the long-term breathing problem (NICE, 2014). Review of the Literature on the basics of Pneumonia Pneumonia has become one of the leading causes of death among various age groups of people all over the world. Pneumonia is generally an infection of lung, which is caused by virus, bacteria, parasites or fungi. The disease is characterized by inflammation of alveoli in lungs and the symptoms include fever, cough, chest pain, and creates difficulty in breathing. The disease ranks third in context to the death of infants and children generally who are under five years of age (Rudan, Pinto, Biloglav, Mulholland & Campbell, 2008). As per the reports of World Health Organization, one among every three new bon child loses their lives due to pneumonia. More than two million children every year die because of the disease. Every year more than 450 million people die from pneumonia all over the world, among which more than four million people lose their lives due to the disease. The disease has been the leading causes of death in the United States in the year 1936 for which the US government implemented an effective health care policy and measures to prevent the disease and thereby reduce the mortality rate from the disease. The introduction of vaccines and antibiotic therapy has contributed much for preventing and curing the disease. The signs and symptoms of pneumonia can be easily detected among the adults in comparison to the children, thus the mortality rate among them is much higher as compared to others (NICE, 2014). The treatment for pneumonia is completely depended on the severity of symptoms and the type of pneumonia with which an individual is infected. Antibiotics are generally used for treating bacterial pneumonia. Taking rest along with ample amount of fluids helps in treating viral pneumonias. Antifungal modifications serves beneficial in treating fungal pneumonias. However, for managing the symptoms of pneumonia various medicines are usually being prescribed that are usually preferred in case of treatment for reducing aches, pains, fever, and coughs. At severe cases, hospitalization of the patient is inherently necessary where the patient would be given oxygen and antibiotics that will help developing the immune system and thereby contribute to quick recovery (Caballero & Rello, 2011). Approach of Collecting Information For conducting the research study effectively, data and information related to the subject matter has been obtained from various secondary sources. Secondary data has been obtained from various authentic and reliable sources that include peer reviewed journals, articles and reports in order to maintain the relevancy of the research study. No primary data has been used in the research study because conducting the primary research would be more time consuming and expensive. Secondary data are less authentic in comparison to the primary data, but the authenticity of secondary data has been maintained by collecting data from evidenced based and peer reviewed journals and articles. Irrelevant and unauthentic websites such as Wikipedia and other encyclopedia has been avoided. The journals and articles being used are all selected from the past seven years in order to increase the relevancy of the subject matter (Agweyu & et al., 2015). The keywords used for searching the literature were ‘causes of pneumonia’, ‘treatment for pneumonia’, ‘preventive measures of pneumonia’, ‘diagnosis of pneumonia’, ‘pharmacological and non- pharmacological treatment’, ‘pathophysiology of pneumonia’, ‘genomic issues of pneumonia’ and ‘approaches for treating pneumonia’. Moreover, various electronic databases related with the healthcare and nursing has also been used to retrieve the most relevant information regarding the subject matter (Agweyu & et al., 2015). Clinical Guidelines to the Disease Process Pneumonia is generally diagnosed through physical examination and through chest X-Ray. A medical practitioner may suspect the disease if wheezing sound, rumbling or coarse breathing is heard from the chest of a patient that is generally identified through stethoscope. Blood tests and X-rays are conducted to the suspect for assuring that the individual has been affected with the germs of pneumonia. Through X-Ray, the position and situation of lungs can be determined easily. Similarly, through blood test the count of white blood cells can be understood that would further help in ascertaining the severity of the disease (Hazir, Nisar, Abbasi, Ashraf, Khurshid, Tariq,…. Maqbool, 2011). Through blood test it can also be understood whether the infection has been caused from fungus, virus or bacteria. In addition, the examination of sputum and bronchoscopy may also serve beneficial in identifying the organisms that is responsible for the disease. Bronchoscopy is generally the procedure through which the suspect is being anesthetized and a camera fitted tube is inserted through the mouth or nose in order to identify the infected areas of the lungs (World Health Organization, 2010). After the pneumonia has been detected within an individual through diagnosis, specific treatment should be conducted with the aim of curing the disease. Pneumonia is generally caused from harmful bacteria and virus for which antibiotics plays a major role in killing the viruses and thereby treating the disease. Choosing the dosage of antibiotics depends on the age of the patients and the severity of symptoms. If proper medications are provided, the symptoms start improving within 2-3 days. If the severity of infection is much worse, the patient should be admitted to hospital where he/she should be treated with proper medications under the guidance of an expert medical practitioner. In case of hospitalized patients, they should be given ‘Azithromycin 500mg IV’ along with ‘Ceftriaxone 1 gram’ once a day, i.e. every 24 hours (The Ohio State University, 2015). The patients are advised to follow the dosages and schedules properly for effective recovery from pneumonia. However, there are certain cases where the patients treat pneumonia without going to the hospitals. For these outpatients they should be given ‘Azithromycin 2 gm (XR)’ one time a day and should be continued up to 7 days. Along with it ‘Clarithromycin 500mg and Doxycycline 100 mg’ should also be provided to the patient two times a day. There should be certain alterations in lifestyle of the patient during the course of antibiotics. For instance the patient should not smoke and reduce the level of alcohol consumption (Crain, Stolz, Bingisser, Muller, Miedinger, Huber, Zimmerli, Harbarth, Tamm & Muller, 2006). Drinking plenty of fluids and taking rest is further recommended for the patients suffering from pneumonia and under dosage of antibiotics (World Health Organization, 2010; Rudan, Pinto, Biloglav, Mulholland & Campbell, 2008). Approach to the Treatment of Pneumonia There are different types of pneumonia depending upon the type of virus, bacteria, parasites and fungi causing the disease. Among the various types of pneumonia includes Community-Acquired Pneumonia, Hospital-Acquired and Healthcare-Associated Pneumonia, Aspiration Pneumonia and Opportunistic Pneumonia. Among all these, the community acquired pneumonia is the most significant and there are various approaches for treating the particular type of pneumonia (Rudan & et al., 2008). These following approaches are involved: Admitting patient to the hospital Providing supportive care to the patient Empiric choice of antibiotic for outpatient adults Empiric choice of antibiotic for adult patients in hospitals Empiric choice of antibiotic for outpatient children Empiric choice of antibiotic for inpatient children Microbiological therapy Specific duration for antibiotic therapy All these are the possible approaches for the treatment of pneumonia and two among the approaches are discussed below: Admitting Patient to the Hospital The patients posing severe symptoms of pneumonia and chronic infections are generally recommended to be admitted to hospitals and health-care centers for their effective treatment and reduce the risk of mortality from the disease. The patients are required to be under continuous medical supervision and medical examinations are to be conducted regularly for ascertaining the improvement of the disease. Thus, the patients with higher complications are required to be admitted to the hospital for better and effective treatment (Rudan & et al., 2008). Supportive Care The patients who are severely affected with the disease are required to be provided with various supportive cares that includes oxygen therapy, ample fluids and ventilation in order to help them to recover soon from the disease. Patients suffering from pneumonia possess certain symptoms such as breathing problem and chest pain among others. Oxygen therapy and ventilation would serve beneficial for these patients to reduce the symptoms and make them feel comfortable. Taking ample fluids is necessary as they would help the patients to overcome dehydration that is common in this disease (Dhar, 2012). Final selection of Approach for the disease process There are various approaches for treating pneumonia among which the most appropriate approach depends on the severity of the disease as well as the types of symptoms. There are generally two major approaches that is mostly preferred in case of pneumonia includes pharmacological approach and non-pharmacological approaches. Among the two approaches, the pharmacological approach would be the most beneficial for curing the pneumonia (Dhar, 2012). This is because according to the approach the patients are being treated in healthcare centers or hospitals rather than treating them in their own houses. In severe and critical cases it becomes risky to treat the diseases outside hospitals as the patient requires continuous medical supervision by professional medical practitioners. Treating the patients with antibiotic and vaccinations is very essential for an effective treatment of pneumonia. Moreover, pharmacological approach also includes the use of various medical tests as well as proper diagnosis of the disease would serve beneficial for an effective treatment (Caballero & Rello, 2011). Follow Up Treatment for Pneumonia After the patient has been effectively diagnosed and proper treatment has been provided by a medical practitioner, he/she should be followed up properly in order to monitor the progress. The medical practitioner should advise the patient to visit the chamber weekly and conduct required medical examinations that would help in understanding the progress. Moreover, the necessary measures should be advised to the patients who should follow it effectively and correspondingly the practitioner should keep a track of the same. Chest X-Ray of the patient should be performed at every checkup visit in order to ascertain the extent to which the infections are clearing up. Corresponding treatment should be conducted if necessary based on the improvement of the infections (Lutfiyya, Henley & Chang, 2006). Conclusion From the above discussions it can be stated that in order to tackle the growing rate of pneumonia among various sections of people all over the world, it is very essential to select the proper approaches for diagnosing and treatment. It is very essential for the healthcare organizations to create proper awareness among the people regarding the causes and harmful impacts of pneumonia and the preventive measures that may be adopted in order to tackle the disease. Moreover, the healthcare organizations should implement effective approach and medical diagnosis measures of the disease that would serve in effective tackling the disease. Among the various approaches of treatment the pharmacological approach is much operative as it supports the use of antibiotics and necessary medical experiments that are required for healing the disease effectively. References Agweyu, A., Gathara, D., Oliwa, J., Muinga, N., Edwards, T., Allen, E., English, M. (2015). 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