Transcendentalism in Literature - Research Paper Example

Transcendentalism in Literature The glory of friendship is not the outstretched hand, nor the kindly smile, nor the joy of companionship; it’s the spiritual inspiration that comes to one when he discovers that someone else believes in him and is willing to trust him and his friendship. (Emerson 323) The opening line about friendship, inspiration and trust was penned by one of the greatest exponents of transcendentalist literature, Ralph Waldo Emerson (Miller 195). Yet, Transcendentalism, is not confined to literature alone, as it refers to “any system of philosophy emphasizing the intuitive and spiritual above the empirical and material” (Miller, Felbaum, Tengi, Wakefield and Langone para. 1). But whether in the philosophical or the literary movement, transcendentalism has drawn scholars and critics alike (Tanner 666). Transcendentalism traces it roots between the period from 1836 to 1860 in New England (Tanner 667). The movement was borne out of reactions against Calvinist orthodoxy of a small group of scholars who later established their faith focused on the divinity of man and nature. Transcendentalists believe that human intuition is the ultimate source of knowledge, and along with it emphasizing individualism, self-reliance and rejection of traditional authority (“Transcendentalism” para. 1). From a movement searching for renewed spiritual and intellectual vigor, Transcendentalism wielded a significant influence on American literature not only among the transcendentalist group, but among other literary groups (“Transcendentalism” para. 2). There is a common tendency to include Transcendentalism under the wings of American Romanticism, which pervaded Europe and the Americas during the nineteenth century. While the presence of an overlap may be true, there are a distinct group of writers representing Romanticism and Transcendentalism (Tanner 666). Aside from Emerson, the other transcendentalist writers are Henry David Thoreau, Bronson Alcott, Elizabeth Peabody, Margaret Fuller Jones, and Theodore Parker. In a way, Emily Dickinson, Herman Melville and Walt Whitman also produced manifested transcendentalist influence in some of their works. On the other hand, famous Romanticists include Charles Brockden Brown, William Cullen Bryant, James Fenimore Cooper, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Washington Irving, Herman Melville and Edgar Allan Poe (Tanner 666). Porte (in Tanner 667) described Transcendentalist literature as one which relies heavily on the use of typical figures and on dream, fantasy, parable or symbol in their exploration of usually large questions pertaining to art, history, human motivation, nature and race. The following paragraphs discuss the influence of Transcendentalism on the selected literary works during the period. Emerson’s 1836 essay Nature is generally hailed as the “gospel” of Transcendentalism in America. Influence of Transcendental philosophy may be noted as Emerson prodded the reader to “enjoy an original relation to the universe”, instead of relying on past experiences and on sacred books, principles and doctrine which is the main argument of the essay (Reuben para. 3). Reuben’s on-going work synthesized comments and criticisms about the essay Nature elucidated by Emerson’s contemporaries and present-day writers. One of Emerson’s contemporaries, Alcott believes that Emerson ventured to present the meaning of nature to the common man from the view of a Transcendental spiritualist. The essay brought out something from within a person which naturally may not be seen using symbolism, with something from the outside in the form of nature (cited in Reuben para. 4). In this respect, the effect of the Transcendentalist movement on literature is to help explain something which is not tangible and invisible through symbolism. As explained by Finseth, a commune with nature is important in Transcendentalist text because nature is the manifestation of God. Being close with nature is man’s way of being close to God (para. 18). Additionally, one of the most prominent effects of Transcendentalism in literature is the integration of spirituality in literary creativity. On the other hand, Frances Bowen presented a mixed evaluation of Emerson’s Nature in 1837. Bowen appreciated Emerson’s philosophy and writing, but pointed weaknesses in terms of ambiguity in presentation and an infusion of religion throughout the text. Bowen also felt that the essay lacked depth since it can be understood by its readers without provoking much thought (cited in Reuben para. 5). It is implied from the criticism that another effect of Transcendentalist thought on literature is a permeation of spirituality into philosophy and reasoning. This may be attributed to the roots of Transcendentalism. It was, however, Thomas Carlyle who christened the essay Nature to be the foundation and groundplan of the philosophy which Emerson is propagating with his writings (cited in Reuben para. 6). The Carlyle comment articulated in 1837 is observed to be parallel to what twentieth century figure Robert Spiller called the gospel of the new faith (cited in Reuben para. 10). In 1952, Sherman Paul saw Emerson’s symbolism in Nature not as a supernatural escape from the world of the unknown but as a union with something which is known (cited in Reuben para. 8). Whereas in 1954, Richard Adams maintained that Nature is a stepping-stone in Emerson’s career (cited in Reuben para. 9). In 1937, another Emerson work entitled The American Scholar earned a place in the American history for its groundbreaking roadmap on building an American identity apart from the influence of European culture. Using symbolism, One Man (para. 4) was the Transcendentalist way of presenting unity of people looking out for each other, without regard to whoever is in higher status in society. In the same speech, Man Thinking (para. 5) obligates a unified people to view the world clearly and with full understanding, without being distracted by traditional views. From The American Scholar, Emerson identified three significant pursuits during a scholar’s education: (1) investigating and understanding nature [where nature has earlier been established by Emerson as carrying the scholar’s mind and personality]; (2) studying the mind of the Past, believing that truth from the past will help in gaining a fresh perspective for the present; (3) taking action and interacting with the world (para. 9). In this respect, one effect of Transcendentalism in literature is a deeper perspective of man and how humanity can fully benefit from knowledge by opening his eyes and his soul to the world. Another renowned Transcendentalist writer, Henry David Thoreau wrote an account of his experience living near the shore of Walden Pond. Living in this village in Concord, Massachusetts, Thoreau set out to work on an experiment about whether or not he can thrive in isolation as he examined the possibility of life in “larger moral and spiritual economy”. Thoreau’s experiment was recounted in his work Walden, where an attempt was made to simplify living in search of “uninhibited and unadulterated wildness”. This was noted to be a recurring theme in many of Thoreau’s works (13, 14). This suggests that one of the effects of Thoreau style-Transcendentalism in literature is communing with nature, like that of Emerson in the essay Nature. Incidentally, it was Emerson who provided the inspiration for Thoreau to capture his experiences in a journal with the offering of his Walden Pond property (15). Another Thoreau work Civil Disobedience is also a monumental Transcendentalist literature. In this 1849 masterpiece, Thoreau supported the need to put one’s conscience over the law, decried slavery and criticized the Mexican-American War, American social institutions, and government policies. From this essay, the effects of Transcendentalism in literature may be seen from the style of interspersing of poetry with social commentary (Thoreau 1-27). While Transcendentalism commenced as its supporter’s reaction to some misgivings pertaining to religious matters, the movement somehow grew away from the church pulpit and made its presence felt strongest “on the page and in the classroom” (Finseth para. 20). Apart from writings, however, transcendentalism gave birth to the highly acclaimed Brook Farm and the Walden Pond. Likewise, the movement generated significant journals such as Western Messenger and the Dial (Von Frank 1083). The Brook Farm was founded in West Roxbury, Massachusetts by the Unitarian minister George Ripley as an experimental cooperative colony of farmers, artisans and some transcendentalists. Conn described Brook Farm as “loosely socialist in plan … intended as a setting in which agriculture, handicrafts, and art would all have a place” (195). Although the community lasted only from 1841 to 1847, contributions from the literary front guaranteed lasting fame for the Brook Farm. The Western Messenger was the first journal of the transcendentalism movement. It was founded in 1835 in the city of Cincinnati with Ephraim Peabody as its editor, aimed at assisting in the spread of liberal Christianity in the West (Versluis 186). In which case, one of the effects of Transcendentalism in literature was the integration of religion, particularly Asian religions. However, the most famous and more important of the Transcendentalist publications was The Dial under Emerson and Thoreau. The Dial was founded in 1840, did not touch on religion nor quantified it with progress. It was edited by Margaret Fuller (Versluis 187; Campbell para. 4). It was believed that The Western Messenger and The Dial have many points of similarity. Both published original poems and sonnets by such literary luminaries like Emerson, Thoreau, Jones, etc. (Delano 148). Meanwhile, the Harbinger, another Brook Farm publication was founded in 1845 as a weekly journal expected to promote sweeping and widespread modifications in the industry and society. The journal outlived the Brook Farm as it was transferred to New York in 1847. The Harbinger was declared as the official organ of Associationism in 1846, but the journal collapsed in 1849 with the failure of Associationism. One of the weaknesses of the Harbinger is that only around a quarter of the total number of poems published here were original, while the rest are poems and other articles from other published works (Delano 16, 17). It was also observed from the literature that one of the effects of Transcendentalism in literature is a new way of interpreting texts from authors identified under the group. Bickman recounted that during Charles Dicken’s visit to America, The latter was told “that whatever was unintelligible would be Transcendental; while Romanticist Edgar Allan Poe was said to have instructed a young writer about the Transcendental tone through the use of small words turned upside down. (para. 2). This account suggests that Transcendentalism revolutionized American literature. It was best articulated from a comment made by a clergyman from Baltimore who observed that from the Transcendentalists was borne a new philosophy where “ nothing is everything in general, and everything is nothing in general” (Bickman para. 2). These comments about Transcendentalism may very well counter Bowen’s earlier criticism that Transcendentalist literature lacked depth. Indeed, Transcendentalist text is deep and unorthodox by its writer’s refusal to be subjected to tradition, when tradition compromises the growth and development of literary and artistic talent. While critics look at Transcendentalist literature as one with a language problem, borrowed words and oracular jargons, and as such is difficult to understand - is not necessarily true. As readers get acquainted with the philosophy, they will be have imbibed “how the mind knows the world, the divine and itself” and thus understand and appreciate the depth and beauty of Transcendentalist literature (Bickman para. 3). From Immanuel Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most significant effects of transcendentalism in literature is its ability to represent a phenomenon outside of sensation, which allows pure depiction in a transcendental sense (para. 7). This, perhaps is one of the reasons why some critics say that Transcendentalist literature is either unintelligible or problematic in its use of language – they tend to apply traditional empirical thought by means of their senses. Romanticists who were influenced by Transcendentalism manifest such effect in their works. Such is the case of Nathaniel Hawthorne, who felt support for his individualism from Transcendentalist philosophy. Having inculcated Transcendentalist values, Hawthorne was able to proceed a step further by formulating ideas of the relative power of good and evil. In some respects, Rosa believed that the Transcendentalists’ tendency to put extreme emphasis on the power of goodness provided Hawthorne the drive to put balance by emphasizing the power of evil. Hence, Transcendentalism affected literature by inspiring dark endings and powerful themes to such masterpieces as The Scarlet Letter, The Birthmark, Young Goodman Brown and Rappaccini’s Daughter (Rosa 115). As a Transcendentalist thinker and writer, Emerson contributed much to literature by taming the wildness of the so-called romantic fury of European literature and giving life to the American version of reason (McCormick 9). McCormick believes that the voice of unreason in America during the nineteenth-century was “acknowledged and tamed in the form of Emersonian Transcendentalism” (10). The taming of unreason and wildness in literature is, therefore, considered as one of the major effects of Transcendentalist thought in American literature. Buell recognized that the literary style of the Transcendentalists developed from their distinct philosophy and that this style somehow contributed to their readers’ better understanding of the association between style and vision in all type of non-fictional literature (1). This contribution might still well be considered as another effect of Transcendentalism on literature. By and large, Von Frank maintained that the significance of transcendentalism is its propagation of a “vision of the universe in which God and the world, spirit and matter, existed in intimate symbolic religion” (1083). From the legacy of Transcendentalist symbolism, their vision of the universe with humanity in its core facilitated in cultivating the creative imagination of what may be described as a predominantly materialistic culture. The effect of Transcendentalism on literary figures in the likes of Dickinson, Frost Ives, James, Stevens and Whitman, was instrumental in preserving Romanticism in both American literature and culture (Von Frank 1083). Garvey credited Miller for his reconstruction of the intellectual history of the American people. At the same time. Garvey also recognized the significant role portrayed by the Transcendentalist movement in mediating in the understanding the association between spirituality and individualism towards the development of American thought (xix). Another significant effect of the Transcendentalist movement in literature was its influence on future journalists and publicists, who according to Bliss Perry, attempted to “hitch their wagon to the star (i.e., the Transcendentalist movement). Perry named a few of them: Orestes Brownson, Ellery Channing James Freeman Clarke Christopher. P. Cranch, , George William Curtis, Charles A. Dana, Father Hecker, George Ripley, and Jones Very (para. 34). In summary, the manifold effects of Transcendentalism in literature are: (1) facilitation of explaining something intangible and invisible through symbolism; (2) integration of spirituality in literary creativity; (3) permeation of spirituality into philosophy and reasoning; (4) deeper perspective of man; (5) explanation of how mankind can fully utilize knowledge by opening their eyes and soul to the world; (6) hinting on man’s need to commune with nature; (7) introduction of the literary style of interspersing poetry with social commentary; (8) integration of religion into literature, particularly Asian religions; (9) a new way of interpreting literary texts; (10) representation of a phenomenon outside of sensation, which allows its pure depiction; (11) inspiration for dark endings and powerful themes in masterpieces such as those of Hawthorne; (12) taming of unreason and wildness in literature; (13) better understanding of the association between style and vision in all type of non-fictional literature; (14) preservation of Romanticism in American culture and literature; (15) its influence on many future journalists and publicists, who each made their mark in American literature; and (16) contributed in the development of the intellectual history of the American people. A cursory look at the summary of the effects that the Transcendentalist movement had on literature from the listing above would indicate only the positives. It goes without saying, however, that in spite of these numerous contributions to literature, Transcendentalism in its totality is not perfect. In fact, Carafiol recounted that “hostility to Transcendentalist texts has been a peculiar and consistent feature of that critical tradition” (94). Carafiol also described how critics placed Transcendentalism at the core of American literature as some form of “catalyst” to fuel up their larger design against the philosaophy. From the very words of Carafiol, critics used Transcendentalism to “pry a mature native literature out of the hard and uncultivated American soil” (94). One of the sharpest and best known criticisms of Transcendentalism is George Santayana’s The Genteel Tradition in American Philosophy. Santayana coined the term genteel tradition to describe the literary practice of some late nineteenth century American writers, particularly those from New England to advocate conventionality in their norms pertaining to society, religion, morality and literature. Santayana named the Transcendentalists second to Calvinists as the source of genteel tradition. In the aforementioned work, Transcendentalism was termed as systematic subjectivism (Santayana 179). But whether or not Transcendentalism contributed to what Santayana calls Genteel tradition, it can not be denied that the Transcendentalist movement exerted a profound influence in literature and even beyond literature. Thoreau’s Civil Obedience did not only feed readers interest in creative text and political thought. Famous world leaders animated words from the pages to effect changes peacefully in misgoverned countries. Mahatma Gandhi used the Indian term equivalents ahimsa and satyagraha to make the British government realize the suffering of his people. The late former President Corazon Aquino of the Philippines, likewise, derived inspiration from Thoreau’s and Gandhi’s civil disobedience in her fabled peaceful and glorious fight against two decades of dictatorship. Indeed, the legacy of great Transcendentalist and Transcendentalism-inspired literary works stand as markers to one of America’s distinct traditions. The heritage of Transcendentalist literature helped preserve interest in various areas. Van Anglen revealed that until the 1970s and the 1980s, traces of Transcendentalist philosophy may be found in American history and institutions, outside of religion. Surprisingly, a resurgence of interest in its philosophy was noted until this very day, particularly along spirituality and multiculturalism (Van Anglen para. 1). To say the very least, Transcendentalism withstood the test of time–a fitting testament with which one may gauge the magnitude of the influence of the movement and its effect on literature and development of thought Works Cited Bickman, Martin. “An Overview of American Transcendentalism.” American Transcendentalism Web. 5 August 2009. Buell, Lawrence. Literary Transcendentalism: Style and Vision in the American Renaissance. London: Cornell University Press. 1973. 1. Campbell, Donna M. “American Transcendentalism.” Literary Movements. 22 May 2007. 4 August 2009. Carafiol, Peter C. “Time and Textuality.” The American Ideal: Literary History as a Worldly Activity. New York. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. 1991. 93-99. Conn, Peter J. Literature in America: An Illustrated History. New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1989. 195 Delano, Sterling F. The Harbinger and New England Transcendentalism: A Portrait of Associationism in America. 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