Techniques Employed in Political Speech Writing and Making - Report Example

Name : xxxxxxxxxxx Institution : xxxxxxxxxxx Course : xxxxxxxxxxx Title : Techniques employed in Political speech writing and making Tutor : xxxxxxxxxxx @2010 Techniques employed in Political speech writing and making Introduction Speech writing and making is an art used in different socio-economic and political settings of life. Speech making is an important part of politics, in fact politics largely involves making promising speeches and acting towards them. Theorists and researchers in the likes of Max Atkinson have played a great role in studying the art of speech making particularly those speeches made by political figure that have brought about political applause. Atkinson identified key techniques and devices that are found in effective speeches that have been made over the years (Blackburn 1996). This paper seeks to present a comprehensive and incisive outlook on the techniques used by political speech writers and makers in the 21st centaury. It will give a critical discourse of the evident elements and techniques employed by several speech makers in the 21st centaury. Part A: Theoretical aspects Max Atkinson, an oxford sociology researcher has over the years played a great role in studying techniques used by political figures in speech writing and speech making. Atkinson identified numerous oratories in classical times. Key amongst the identified oratory includes speeches from Harold Macmillan, Ian Paisley and Martin Luther King. Atkinson noted key elements employed in their speeches as good content with effective rise and fall of language, emotion and tone incorporated in the right places. According to Atkinson, these tactics of speech making can be acquired by much practice and diligence. He further explored the devices which great speech makers use to grip the attention of the crowd, these devices include a combination of dramatic repetition and anecdotes. Atkinson suggests several concepts such as satisfying rhythm and repetition for speech writing in regards to private events. Good and effective speeches incorporate imagery such as “sting like a bee”, being savaged by a dead sheep “among many other imagery expressions. Speech making has become a daunting task for most politicians, speeches are hardly heard in the public whereas the average length of sound bites in the radio and television has dropped from forty two to nine seconds in the radio and television. Atkinson notes that one’s speech should not be remembered for its length rather speeches should be remembered for their fascinating content and engaging and warm delivery. In regards to the structure and arrangement of speeches Socrates recommends that the speaker should give a preliminary definition of the subject in discussion, moreover, he or she should divide the subject in discussion into various parts. In reference to Paul Chilton’s book, “Analysing Political Discourse “, there is an inherent relationship between politics and language. Chapter 2 of this book explores the functions of language in politics and the various dimensions in which language in incorporated in political discourse. According to the sentiments put across in this book, political language has distinctive elements that are in most cases epitomised by rhetoric devices of speech making in order to capture the attention of the target audience and to pass across a particular message in manner that is coherent and creative (Chilton 2004). In the book, “Political language and rhetoric”. Paul E. Corcoran has provided an insightful expose of language as an integral part of politics. He has offered a unique theory on political communication and rhetorical. Corcoran has examined language as a mode of political behavior and social force. He explores the evolution of techniques employed in a political discourse and the changing perceptions in regards to the use of rhetoric techniques in contemporary language technology. Corcoran further examines various aspects of public speaking or speech delivery that epitomise the twentieth centaury use of political rhetoric as a mode of communication. Rhetoric devices in speech making Rhetoric is a study of effective writing and speaking, in this case this form of speaking is geared towards persuading, influencing and making on impact on the public. Rhetorical devices are mainly used in speeches to make an effect, these devices are as well used to present speeches in the most effective way and bring about verbal dexterity. There are various rhetorical devices that can be used in speech making and speech writing key among them include irony, onomatopoeia, metaphor, syllogism, hyperbole, anaphora, allegory, isocolon and antithesis among many others. Irony In speech making irony is a literary technique whereby there is an implied discrepancy between what is meant and what it is said. Irony is in most cases used in speech making so as emphasis on a particular truth. Irony epitomises the use of sarcasm, simile and litotes to emphasis a particular meaning by using a language that is in direct contract to the intended meaning however the language used has a factual connection to the intended truth. There are various kinds of irony that can be incorporated in speechmaking key among them include, dramatic irony, verbal irony and situational irony. When employing dramatic irony in a speech, the speech maker acts in a way that is contrary to the intended truth. This technique emphasises on the literal facts by providing an example of a persona that is fictional thus highlighting factual truth out of complete ignorance. In most cases irony incorporates commentary that increases tension between the fate and state of a person who needs to understand a particular fact that they are supposed to know but they do not know (Bryant & Fox 2002). Verbal irony in speech making incorporates an intentional disparity between the intention and expression put across by the speech maker. It comes about when the speech maker says one thing and means another or when the literal meaning of what the speaker says is contrary to the intended effect. On the other hand, in speech making situational irony involves a disparity between the result and the intention. Situational irony comes into effect when the results of a particular action are different from the expected outcomes (Bryant & Fox 2002). Onomatopoeia The incorporation of onomatopoeia as a literary technique in speech making involves suggesting and imitating the source of the described sound. Common ly used onomatopoeia include sounds made by animals such as “roar”, “oink “among many others. The use of onomatopoeia in speeches is not universal and it varies across linguistics systems and contexts. For instance, in Dutch the sound made by a clock is verbalised as “tik tak” in English it is verbalised as “tick tock” whereas in French it is verbalised as “tic-tac.” Basically, onomatopoeia are used in speech making to emphasise on a particular aspect, draw the attention of the audience and make them remember (Crystal 1997). Metaphor When employing metaphor in speech making or speech writing, it depicts an analogy between two expressed ideas or objects thus replacing the use of one word with another. The use of metaphors in speech writing or speech making denotes other rhetorical figures of speech which are used to compare, associate and resemble. Examples of these figures of speech include simile, hyperbole and antithesis among many others. The use of metaphors in speeches asserts similarity between two ideas or objects. Metaphors qualify as a distinctive style in speech making and writing. As an expression conveyed in speeches, metaphors suggest the likeness of an entity with another these entities may be ideas, activities and attributes of a certain phenomenon. As an aspect of speech, metaphors serve as poetic imaginations, for instance, in William Shakespeare’s play, “As you like it” he uses metaphors to compare the world to a stage and the inhabitants of the world a players coming in and going out at the end of each stage. In his book, “The Road Not Taken” uses metaphors to compare life to a long journey. On the other hand, Sylvia Path in her poem “Cut “uses metaphors to equate the blood from her cut thumb to the running of millions of soldiers. In a nutshell, in speeches metaphors serve as techniques of persuading the audience or the listeners concerning the arguments put across by the speech maker (Crystal 1997). Syllogism Syllogism in speech writing and speech making involves the use of logical arguments whereby one proposition is inferred from two other propositions of a particular form. Syllogism in speech making may also incorporate a discourse whereby a number of things are supposed as different from the things of necessity because they are so. When using syllogism in speeches facts are derived by putting together the existing statements. In speeches syllogism are made up of three categorical parts they include, the major premise, the minor premise and the conclusion. Each part of the syllogism has a categorical proposition, position and term. According to Aristotle, each part of a syllogism relates to the other. For instance, in a syllogism a major premise may express that, “All men are mammals” the minor premise may express that “Smith is a man” The conclusion will draw that “Smith is a mammal.”In speeches the use of syllogism helps to engage the audience and draw their attention (Blackburn 1996). Hyperbole The use of hyperbole in speech making involves the use of exaggerated expressions in order to emphasise, evoke and create strong feelings about a particular matter. The meaning of hyperboles should not be interpreted literally, hyperboles are essentially figures of speech in an exaggerated form used to emphasise or create effect. Additionally, hyperboles can be used in speeches to induce humor. For instance, a speech maker can say, “we have waited for centauries” this implies that there has been a long wait but it does not necessarily imply that they have waited for centauries. Anaphora Anaphora is a rhetoric device that can be incorporated in speech making, it involves repeating sequences of words at the start of the neighboring clause in order to create emphasis. Alternatively, epiphora involves repeating sequences of words at the end of the neighboring clause. Charles Dickens is well known for his frequent use of anaphora as a literary tool in his writings and speeches. Allegory Allegory is a form of extended metaphor that conveys a different meaning from the literal one. The use of allegory in speech making conveys the meaning of a particular lesson through the use of symbolism (Crystal 1997). Part B: Practical aspects Analysis of Martin Luther King’s “I have a dream speech” The speech, “I have a dream” by Martin Luther has over the years been considered as one of the best speeches ever made. From the steps of Lincoln memorial in August 1963, Martin Luther delivered a moving speech that caused many to applaud. Basically, the key message in King’s speech was about racial justice and a united society. In his speech King used several compositional techniques and strategies that were well researched. It is apparent that in preparation for his speech King studied the Bible, the US Declaration of Independence and the Gettysburg Address (Hansen 2003). Stylistically, Kings Speech has depicted a work of poetry, imagery, political treatise, incorporation of biblical language and an improvised sermon. Furthermore, King speech has incorporated frequent repetition and rhythm used for masterful delivery of key points. The format of King’s speech is inherently simple and can be divided into two parts that can help in memorability. The poetic aspects in King’s speech are illuminated through his use of metaphor, rhythm and repetitions. Kings speech can be viewed as a wide master piece of rhetoric, his speech epitomises the style of a Baptist sermon. It appeals to well known and iconic Bible sources (Hansen 2003). Moreover, his speech has incorporated some aspects of Emancipation Declaration, the United States constitution and the United States Declaration Independence. In regard to the rhetoric aspect of allusion, King has used language and phrases from significant cultural contexts. At the beginning of the speech King refers to Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg by stating “Five score years ago….” In this statement biblical allusions are as well prevalent. For instance, King refers to Psalm 30:5 in the second stanza of the speech. He states in regards to the elimination of slavery as depicted in the Emancipation Proclamation that, “It came as a joyous day break to end the long night of their captivity.” Another key biblical allusion that King has used in his speech can be found in the tenth stanza of the speech, “No, no we are not content ..... until justice rolls like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream. ” This can be found in Amos 5:24. In the speech Martin Luther also quoted Isaiah 40:4-5 “I have a dream that that the valley will be exalted.” (Hansen 2003). Elements of Shakespeare’s lines in Richard III can be seen in King’s speech when he states, “this sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until the invigorating autumn.” Throughout Martin Luther‘s speech he has used, Anaphora- this is the repetition of phrases at the beginning of sentences. His speech has used this rhetorical tool throughout the entire speech. A clear example of how King has used anaphora in his speech is showed in the sixth paragraph. In this paragraph King urges his audience by saying, “Now is the time….” this phrase is repeated six times in this paragraph. The most evident use of anaphora can be seen in the phrase, “I have a dream.” By using this phrase Martin Luther shows a picture of a unified America to his audience. Other phrases in the speech whereby King has used anaphora include, “Let freedom ring...” “Free at last…”(Hansen 2003). Speech Analysis of Barrack Obama’s inaugural address Following his victory as the first Black president of the Unites States, Barrack Obama delivered a speech that received much applause. His speech was simple, strong and thus it was able to convey the message coherently. Moreover, his speech evidently depicted the use of distinctive speech making techniques. In his speech elements of rhetoric devices are apparent. For instance, repetition patterns are evident he uses his popular phrase, “Yes we can” severally in his speech. Metaphoric expressions are as well evident in his speech. He exclaims, “the road ahead will be long, our climb will be steep. “ Syllogism as a literal technique is evident in Obama’s speech, in his inaugural address, Obama used logical arguments in which one proposition is inferred from two other propositions of a particular form (Obama 2008). Some form of inclusiveness is as well evident in his speech, he states in his speech, “It is the answer spoken by young and old, rich and poor, Democrat and Republican, black, white, Latino, Asian, Native American, gay, straight, disabled and not disabled ….” In this speech Obama gives a recollection of historical events. He states, “I think about all that she's seen throughout her century in America – the heartache and the hope; the struggle and the progress; the times we were told that we can't, and the people who pressed on with that American creed…. “In his speech Obama expresses values of individual liberty, self reliance and national unit. Moreover, his closing remarks in the speech epitomize some elements of religion in the speech he concludes, “God bless you…., God Bless the United States of America” (Obama 2008). John .F. Kennedy inaugural address Following his victory as the 35th President of the United States of America in January 20, 1961, John .F. Kennedy delivered a power full speech that was greatly applauded. His speech was geared towards expressing America’s commitment to delivering its promises, the freedom that Americans have and the responsibility that comes thereof. Kennedy’s speech was stirring since it incorporated dynamic words, anaphora, strong connotations and its was delivered with great charisma. His speech begun with a concise statement of facts, this formed an introduction that allowed him to express his intentions for the future and what he intended to do to improve the standards of living. The syntax that he has incorporated in this speech causes the audience to pause and reflect on his words more that if he had used ornate sentences. In his speech, Kennedy states, “The world is very different now….” This statement gives an example of how the use of the word, “world” in 1961 caused people to think of the events in the previous presidential era that took place during the World War 2. Kennedy concludes the first part of his speech by using another parallel sentence structure thus allowing him to accentuate on the fact that America stands on its promises and that he was going to keep his word (Kennedy 1961). After capturing the attention and interest of his audience, Kenned used anaphora on the people in the world that United States partners with. He address the old allies, new states, sister republic, poor people of the United States and the United Nations. He uses the phrase, “To those….” to draw the world’s connections in the mind of his audience showing the absolute power of the United States. This technique helped to establish the tone in which Kennedy speech was based on in the entire speech. His tone is intrinsically radical and authoritative as he expresses his hope for the future embedded in rigid power. Kennedy’s tone in the speech epitomizes ethos directly to his audience since he shows confidence thus giving his audience a sense of stability and authority (Kennedy 1961). In the course of his speech Kennedy incorporates various forms of antithesis. In one section of the speech he uses antithesis by stating, “If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich.” In this statement Kennedy uses the contrast of poor and rich to accentuate on that fat that America is endowed with freedom and a as great nation , there is need to help those that are need mainly because freedom is a luxury that some people in the world are not endowed with. In the middle of his speech, Kennedy concludes on his assurance in regards to how United States will keep its promises to the world, he further introduces a challenge to the adversaries of the United States. He expresses the challenge for al nations, foes and friends to unite for the greater good of the world of the law whereby peace is maintained, the weak are secure and the strong are just. Kennedy emphasises on this because the issue of nuclear tension captured the attention of the words. Using pathos, Kennedy persuades the audience that maintaining peace in the world is the best and the first way in which the world can achieve productiveness in the political and socio-economic spheres of life (Kennedy 1961). Moreover, in his inaugural speech Kennedy uses pathos and imagery. He does not directly state the impacts of nuclear destruction as fear instead he uses the phrase, “dark powers of science that engulf humanity” to describe the harmful impacts of nuclear powers. In this section of the speech, Kennedy’s diction incorporates the hyperbole technique of expression since he over exaggerates in the speech when he states, “the power of science...Pushing the dark side though there are two sides of each endeavor.” The use of such exaggeration in turn causes his audience to be enthused in Kennedy’s choice of words and as a result trust in his solutions. At the final section of his speech, Kennedy initiates the start of a quest for a perfect world by urging citizens of America to arms, figuratively. He pleas to logos when he accepts that the change and the hope that he was speaking about cannot come about spontaneously or without the help of people. Kennedy expresses this concerning by assuring his audience that some of these goals require his radical approach to change. Chiasmus later becomes his key focus in the final persuasions in the speech, he concludes his speech with one of the famous words greatly endeared by Americans...” do not ask what your country can do for you instead ask for what you can do for your country. “This technique whereby he persuades American to be proactive for the sake of their country, sums up the key objective of his speech that is, express the need for Americans to be diligent and strive to bring positive changes in their country and the world as a whole. Basically, John F. Kennedy’s inaugural speech has conveyed a proper use of various literary and rhetoric devices that make his speech captivating and powerful (Kennedy 1961). Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address The key message in the Gettysburg Address is that the deceased should be remembered through the recommitment equality and unity amongst the living. Lincoln communicated this message largely through the use of poetic rhythms, parallel structures and antithesis. The diction in this speech is noticeable and distinct as a result of the words that Lincoln chose to use and those that he did not use. The Lincoln’s Gettysburg address is often times considered as a prose poem due to its rhythm and structure which resembles those used in poetry (Chilton 2004). Lincoln uses anaphora in the lines whereby he states, “we cannot consecrate” “we cannot dedicate”, “we cannot hallow” these statements create rhythm that in turn point out and emphasise to the audience what they should do. By using parallel structures, Lincoln urges his audience that they need to work towards a "government, of the people, by the people and for the people." Furthermore, Lincoln also incorporates imagery and antithesis when he compares birth and death nevertheless, he ingeniously focuses on images allied with birth when he uses the phrases "brought forth", conceived,” and "new birth of freedom." At the end of his speech he uses, active verbs which gives the audience hope for the future. He says, "the dead shall not have died in vain" the government shall not perish" to focus the audience's attention again to moving on after the aggravating war. Eventually, Lincoln reconnects the audience together by not using words such as North, South, Union, Confederacy or slavery. As a result, the audience was able to turn their focus from the very existing problems of the day and allow themselves to be inspired and motivated by the message in Lincoln’s speech. (Chilton 2004). In addition, one of the distictintive structural aspects in Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address is apparent in the ways in which he transverses time. In his opening remark he states. “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth ….” Moreover, in the middle section of his speech focuses his audience on the current crisis by stating, “Now we are engaged in a great civil war…. we have come to dedicate a portion of that field…” The speech ends with an emotive depiction of the greater purpose that the future holds in this section Lincoln states, “ dedicated to the great task remaining before us… that the government of the people shall not perish from the earth.” By touching on the aspects of the future, present and the past, Lincoln evokes the very innate substance of human existence in his speech (Chilton 2004). Conclusion There is an inherent relationship between politics and language. Political language has distinctive elements that are in most cases epitomised by rhetoric devices of speech making in order to capture the attention of the target audience and to pass across a particular message in manner that is coherent and creative. There are various rhetorical devices that can be used in speech making and speech writing key among them include irony, onomatopoeia, metaphor, syllogism, hyperbole, anaphora, allegory, isocolon and antithesis among many others. Key political figures in the 21st centaury in the likes of Martin Luther King, Barrack Hussein Obama, John .F Kennedy and Abraham Lincoln among many others are well known for delivering electrifying speeches that have received much applause over the years. The main factors that have made their speeches stand out from the rest, is based on how they have employed rhetoric devices and other literary techniques to engage their audiences. Their speeches are not remembered for their length rather they remembered for their fascinating content, engaging and warm delivery (Chilton 2004). Bibliography Blackburn, S, 1996, Syllogism in the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, Oxford University Press, UK. Bryant, G & Fox Tree, J, 2002, Recognizing verbal irony in spontaneous speech. Metaphor and Symbol, 17, 99-115. Chilton, P, 2004, Analyzing political discourse: theory and practice, Routledge Publishers, New York. Corcoran, P, 2008, Political Language and rhetoric, University of Texas Press, Austin. Crystal, D, 1997, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Second Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Hansen, D, 2003, The Dream: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Speech that Inspired a Nation, Harper Collins Publishers, New York. John F. Kennedy. Inaugural Address, Washington, D.C. 20 Jan 1961. Obama, B, 2008, President Obama’s Victory Speech, Retrieved on May, 9, 2010 Read More