Feminism and Femininity over lifespan - Essay Example

? Feminism and femininity over lifespan This paper focuses on the notion of feminism and femininity over lifespan in its core. In the initial stage highlight is made on the different aspects of feminism and a brief discussion about femininity. Then the paper shifts its focus on the theories developed by two eminent psychologists Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud on feminism. Then a detailed analysis of the theories, their empirical evidences and comparison between the two scholars contribution to feminism is discussed in a distinct way. Great communist philosopher Karl Marx proposes that communism is attained by moving out from the realms of ‘Differentiated Disunity’. ‘Differentiated Disunity’ ushers after deviation from the undifferentiated unity. According to ‘Undifferentiated Unity’ all are same in the sphere of society. There is no such distinction among the social agents in the society with respect to class and status. But conflict among the individuals lead to the creation of differentiated disunity where man creates differentiation among themselves with respect to class and societal status and thus emerged the so called differentiation between the slaves and feudal lords and thus human domination of one class over the other generated as a consequence. Marx proposes of a society where there will be no differentiation between individual. Yardstick of measurement of every individual will be always equal. From the concept of differentiated disunity the concept of feminism develops. As a consequence of the phenomenon of domination ‘feminism’ emerges as a dimension of a philosophy and comes with its multifaceted theory along with its implication. The crux of feminism originates from the inequality between the genders. According to the Feminist sociologists arguments which crops up is that they experience injustice and inequalities in favor of men. This gives rise to the notion that determination of the lives of the women gets concentrated in the hands of men (Feminism, n.d.). Different aspects of feminism Having a fundamental knowledge about feminism basic disintegration of the different class of feminism needs to be discussed. Although feminism is a vast arena of study categorization can be done into four main groups. They are: a) Liberal Feminism, b) Marxist/Socialist Feminism, c) Black Feminism and d) Radical Feminism Liberal feminism The liberal feminist advocates equal distribution of rights between men and women. Women should not be in any case subordinated or discriminated on the basis of their sex. Every individual should be treated in accordance with their talent and merit.(Feminism, n.d.). The Equal Pay Act, 1975 has been successfully implemented in order to eliminate the discrimination of the women with terms and condition of employment. Marxist/Socialist Feminism According to the Marxist/Socialist Feminists social class affects the life chances and acts as a key factor in determining the relationship between men and women in the society. They blame the notion of capitalism for the dominance of the women in the sphere of society. Capitalism leads to the augmentation of the conflict between the sexes. Inside the nucleus of capitalism the women are treated as ‘reserve army of labor’ excluded from the crafts and earning by providing service , rather they are treated In such a way that they are treated for only free services in the households. These feminists are proponents of communism who think that it is only through the attainment of communism that the conflict between the sexes can be curbed to the fullest (Feminism, n.d.) Black Feminism It is a recent concept which entails focus on the importance of race and ethnicity has developed in recent years as an attempt to entail focus on the importance of race and ethnicity. They argue for the existence of racism model and states that white feminist acts as persecutors to black women. Arguments are also there that various racism models neglects women of other ethnicities like Greeks, Filipinos and Chinese etc (Feminism, n.d.). Radical feminism The prime ideology of the Radical feminists is that they believe, it is from patriarchy that comes and guarantees male chauvinism and subsequently subordination of the women at work and in home. In the views of radical feminist men inflict physical and sexual violence over women and from this domination originates. More rigid radical feminist are advocators of lesbian relationships in an attempt to free themselves from men. Their main argument is that the advancement of biotechnology has given rise to new dimension where men are not treated as a dependant means of conceiving (Feminism, n.d.) Femininity Although the term ‘femininity’ is used among the people very commonly, however the concept of femininity is quite complex. Reduction to a fixed definition of femininity will not be perfectly accepted because it will give an inappropriate definition of femininity as the ways of living by millions of female over the world is constantly changing and evolving. A typically feminine woman is commonly judged on some common attributes like vulnerability, physical strength, intelligence and sexual availability. Feminine behavior is a variable behavioral trait which changes for different cultures, regions and social sphere. Bordo in context of femininity states that, it is the obsessive pursuit of the ‘elusive ideal of femininity’. A process of learning for the girls and women is that many male drag artists, transvestites and transsexuals learn explicitly to render femininity. Femininity is the learnt behavior which is generated in several new forms in everyday life of women through their spontaneous interaction between men and women. Femininity shows deference. One common method of rendering ‘femininity’ is the exaggerated use of ‘feminine’ behavior such as ‘pouting’, shrieking, battle of eyelashes- acting both childish and knowing at the same time. If these traits and behavioral pattern are adopted by men then they are instantly recognized as ‘feminine’ behavior because of already prevalent cultural knowledge and assumptions as for example women are known to be coquettish, hysterical or deceitful’ (Holland, 2004, p. 36). It is a fact that women are abided by some stereotypes and cultural ideas of femininity. Studies have argued that ‘’gender is something that people ‘do’ rather than what they are.’’ These traits form a false identity made by the gender and represent elements of masquerade present in ‘femininity’. The natural element of ‘femininity’ is highlighted by masquerade where there is nothing as such called ‘true femininity’. According to Reynolds and Press Masquerade ‘plays’ and ‘provokes’ and ‘confounds’. When applied to femininity, the distinction between ‘mask’ and ‘masquerade’ needs to be mentioned. According to Evans and Thornton describe femininity as taking ‘control of the mask’, the disguise. Masks and masquerade are different forms of disguise and indicate different levels of control of social lives of the individuals in the society (Holland, 2004, pp. 35-37). Sigmund Freud’s theory and contribution to feminism and femininity Sigmund Freud was a Jewish psychologist and he is unanimously recognized as the father of psychoanalysis. He was behind the discoveries of main theme of psychoanalysis and incorporated gradually the practice of psychoanalysis as the neurosis therapy. (Who was Sigmund Freud?). Sigmund Freud has developed many theories on feminism and has been several times being strongly criticized by feminist social scientists. He was in several instances blamed for perpetuating women’s oppression in the society and holding misogynistic beliefs. Many feminist social scientists have rejected Freud’s notorious theory of sexism. But the fact was that the theory of Sigmund Freud has not been rejected by all the feminists. In 1970s many scholars began studying on the psychoanalytical framework in order to interpret the origins of gender inequality. Although Freud’s theories have been immensely objected by feminists but they are an indispensable tool for understanding the relation between the gender identity and male domination (England, 1993, p. 131). According to Sigmund Freud: ‘’The great question that has never been answered, and which I have not yet been able to answer, despite my thirty years of research into the feminine soul, is 'What does a woman want?' (Cherry, n.d.) Theory of penis envy In Freudian psychoanalysis penis envy refers to the theorized response of a girl throughout her psychosexual development which led her to the realization that she does not have a penis. This psychological phenomenon with the parallel reaction in the boys that the girls do not have a penis is the castration anxiety. Castration anxiety refers to metaphorical application of psychological impact on women who were presumed to have the wish in their mind to be a man. In Freud’s psychosexual development theory the phallic stage that is the ages between 3.5 and 6 years have been seen as the first period of development in which the libidinal focus is primarily on the genital area. In the oral stage that is in the first 12 to 18 months the libidinal needs focuses on the desire to eat, sleep, suck and bite. Freud states that for both the sexes, penis become the principal interest during the phallic stage. These events are known by the name of Oedipus complex for boys and Electra complex for girls. The changes in the anatomy of a girl child during the phallic stage examined by Freud can be mentioned. He states that soon after the libidinal shift to the penis the child develops her first sexual impulses to her mother. But soon she realizes that she is not physically equipped to encounter a heterosexual relationship with her mother. And in due course the girl child realizes that she has a desire for penis and as a solution develops a sexual desire for her father. The girl blames her mother for her apparent castration and thus shifts her focus of sexual impulses from her mother to her father. She develops a sexual desire for her father which in substitute leads to the generation of a desire to replace and eliminate her mother by identifying and trying to mimic her mother. But she also realizes the fact that above mentioned sexual desire will lead her to punishment and in this mechanism the girl shifts her focus of sexual desires from her father to men in general (Buchanan, 2012). Empirical evidence of Penis envy The theory and concept of penis envy has been severely criticized within and outside the perimeter of psychoanalytic movement. The theory has been also severely criticized on the grounds of biological improbability and lack of clinical support. But these criticisms were challenged by Clara’s Thompson’s formulation which stated that women did not envy male anatomy, instead they envy male status and power for which the penis is dominant and convenient symbol. Despite Thompson’s plausibility empirical evidences did not supported the fact. In a paper ‘Cross-cultural perspectives on penis envy’ sample of women from 20 cultures were considered. Then a measure of correlation between the extent of penis envy imagery (dependant variable) and the female status (independent variable) was taken. In result it was found that an inverse relationship between the variables considered existed. It signifies that as the social position of these women increased their manifestation towards penis envy fantasies in dream declined. “But for the men of these cultures penis envy fantasies varied not with the status of the women but with the visibility of sex differences” (Cross-cultural perspectives on penis envy, n.d.). Influence of religion in Freud’s theory of feminism Sigmund Freud exposited reductionist theories on the moral conscience and the creation of ‘god’ based on psycho-social ethnographic anthropological foundations. In today’s modern world these theories are strictly evaluated on a philosophical angle. Freud’s Oedipus complex and interpretation of dreams Sigmund Freud’s robust expression in the rejection of his father is observed in the concept of Oedipus complex. In this theory Freud proposed the hatred of the father and shows a desire to kill his father in fact or in fantasy. Freud viewed this proposed complex as the source of countless dreams, wishes and illusions. A striking significance in the motivation of the oedipal complex is that Freud was delivering an unconscious, childish and neurotic wish not only the death of father but also the death of symbolic surrogate, God. Here ushers the notion of Freud’s atheistic behavior. According to Sigmund Freud, for many people, ‘disbelief in God the father is the closest to revenge that they can get ’ (Vitz, 1993, p.220). This may be accounted to the sufferings which he encountered in his childhood. Although Freud claimed that he had little understanding of women, Freud described himself as her mother’s special favorite. Freud once commented that, “I have found that people who know that they are preferred or favored by their mothers give evidence in their lives of a peculiar self-reliance and an unshakable optimism which often bring actual success to their possessors." (Cherry, n.d.). Empirical validation of Oedipus complex   Freud’s central thesis of Oedipus complex encounters certain weaknesses. Firstly he made assumptions that early organization of tribes resembled that of Darwinian higher apes and not monkeys which are primarily ‘troop’ related and nomadic. He also assumes that all cultures are affected by ancient tribes where blood sacrifice is the central to the belief and are practice of near- eastern culture and the other culture outside this blood sacrifice had no influence. He also does not sufficiently ascertain the reality that the totemic sacrifice has been originated from the ancient near-eastern prehistoric cultures (Knight, n.d.). Criticisms and feminist movement against Freud’s theory Although Sigmund Freud’s one of the greatest achievement was the development of the penis theory however he has received severe criticisms from the female socialists and scholars. Female psychoanalysts such as Karen Horney and other feminist thinkers have described his ideas as distorted and condescending. Karen Horney was a trained psycho analyst who gained tremendous recognition after the death of Sigmund Freud in 1939. Horney served as the dean of the American Institute of Psychoanalysis in New York for many years. She robustly objected Freud’s theory. She stated that Freud’s theory underpins his views that’ women were dependant, vain and submissive because of biological forces and childhood sexual experiences.’ Karen Horney took the case of penis envy and stated that it adversely affects the girls’ development. According to Horney personality development in men and women is developed through the child-parent social interaction (Kouyoumdjian and Plotnik. 2010, p. 440). Feminist critique of Oedipus complex for example, argues that from the very childhood the patriarchic culture enters into the child. Eva Figes for example, points out that Freud's theory of the resolution of the Oedipus complex was a reaction to the feminist movement in order to establish the social and economic dependency of women and accuses Freud to be ‘thoroughly bourgeois’. Inequalities in the patriarch cal nuclear family give rise to oppressive climate within the family where the child grows and creates within him an awareness of a hierarchy of power (Knight, n.d.). Carl Jung’s and his contribution to feminism and femininity Dream theory Carl Jung is a renowned name in the field of Modern Depth psychology. Modern Depth psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with the in depth study of unconscious as its main object. Carl Jung’s Dream theory is considered as one of the most important and influential in the field of Modern Depth Psychology. Carl Jung was a Swiss medical doctor and his Dream theory needs a brief discussion in order to analyze its contribution to feminism (Jung’s Dream Theory, n.d.). According to Carl Jung, dreams are direct and natural condition of the dreamer’s mental world. According to Jung, the nature of the dream is to present, ‘a spontaneous self portrayal, in symbolic form, of the actual situation in the unconscious’ (Jung’s dream theory, n.d.). Dreams according to Jung speak in distinctive language of symbols, images and metaphors which represents the natural means of expression. Jung concluded that understanding the language of dreams is different from the language of the waking consciousness. Dreams sometimes portray the dreamer’s relation with the external world that is with the people, events and activities of the dreamer’s daily life which Jung recognized as the objective level of the meaning of dreams. Jung told that the subjective level of the meaning of dream is the portrayal of the dreamer’s inner world by the personifications of thoughts and feelings within the dreamers’ psyche. The functions of dreams, archetypes and femininity There are two functions according to Jung that dreams serves. The first function is to compensate for the imbalances in the dreamer’s psyche. Dreams bring unconscious contents that consciousness has ignored or actively repressed. For example if a person is overly intellectual then his or her dreams will work to balance his conscious excess by bringing together the images of the psyche’s more-oriented contents. And when the dreamer recognizes and accepts these contents of unconscious states then a greater psychological balance is maintained. The second function of the dreams according to Jung is that they provide images of the future which helps the individual to make forecasts about the future. Although he also says that the dreams cannot predict the future. He only states that the dreams enable the individuals to assess the possibilities that can exist in the future. He comes to the conclusion that dreams acts as a promoter of developing a process of human life that is the synthesis of uniting of consciousness and unconsciousness in a healthy , harmonious state which Jung calls the "complete actualization of the whole human being’’ (Jung’s dream theory, n.d.). Beneath the personal unconsciousness there lies the collective unconsciousness which is an obscure region inherited as a race memory coupled with archetypes that appear in the same form in cultures widely separated in time and space. The most important archetypes are the persona, animus, anima, shadow and the self. The persona acts as the mask which is borne by each individual in the society which may or may not reveal the actual self. The anima is the feminine part of a man which reveals the man’s experience with woman. The animus is the masculine part of a woman which resort to the evolution of the experience of a woman with man. “The shadow is the reverse of the outward personality we show to the world. The self is the most important archetype and holds all the other systems together” (Jung’s dream theory, n.d.). Empirical evidence of Carl Jung’s theory and role of religion in his theories Carl Jung’s dream theory can be related to his own experience from his family and relation between his father and mother. Jung faced the dual character from his own mother. His mother possessed split personality. According to Jung his mother was a loving individual by day and a demon by night. The worst aspect of his mother’s ‘dualistic’ legacy made it almost impossible for Jung to integrate his feelings in a single woman. (Parker,2010). Carl Jung said that deity is typically represented by the expression of the imagery by which Self Archetype is expressed which points to the wholeness and unity. Jung said that the Self might be called ‘God within us.’ His studies in mythology, personal experience, alchemy reflects that there is an in built image of God in every human. According to Jung Self is an unconscious factor which on its own works as a whole to institute different psyche in order to generate the overall consciousness. He also states that sun is not a hero who marches across the sky in course of the day . It is embedded in our unconscious minds. This philosophy leads to the development of images which replicates with the mother archetype (Lawson, 2008, pp. 156-158). Comparison between Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud dimensions in the contribution to feminism and femininity Carl Jung was Sigmund Freud’ most ardent student and followed his footsteps in his initial life of research. With immense effort from the support of Freud, he became the first president of Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Freud also considered Jung as the ‘crown prince’ and his personal successor. But after sometimes Jung dissolved his relationship with Sigmund Freud and they never spoke to each other. The reason for their split was because Jung disagreed Freud’s emphasis on sex drive. Jung’s sole belief was that for the development of personality collective unconsciousness was necessary. According to Jung collective unconscious is an amalgamation of various traces and symbols which are passed on by birth and are shared by all peoples in all culture. In case of the belief of God, Freud follows a rigid atheistic viewpoint from his feelings to kill his father and in that respect the God. This comes from his personal experience in his family during his childhood. On the other hand Carl represented the dual nature of feminism from the experiences he had from his own mother in his family. His analytical psychology had influence on philosophy and he proposes proper counseling and therapy. Jung dreamt a great deal about the dead, the land of the dead, and the rising of the dead which represented the unconsciousness (Kouyoumdjian and Plotnik. 2010, p. 440). Jung began to believe that those who are mentally ill are haunted by ghosts where no-one is supposed to believe in them. He suggested that if people can recapture their mythologies then these ghosts can be understood and will be able to deal comfortably with these ghosts and mental illness can be healed up (Boeree, 2006).  Jung’s belief lies in the fact that individuals are meant to progress in a positive direction. On the other hand Freud suggests adaptation rather than moving with progress. Jung states that the idea of self-realization is more or less similar to self actualization. Jung is attributed to the broadening of interpretation whether it is in the case of dreams or free association. But Freud concentrated on rigid specifically sexual interpretations. But Carl Jung allowed a free-wheeling ‘mythological’ interpretation where there is provision for almost everything (Boeree, 2006). Conclusion The paper focuses on the notion of feminism that develops from the inequalities between genders that is male domination from time immemorial. The feminist sociologists in favor of feminism state that it is a concept which rises from the experience of injustice, atrocities and inequalities which are in favor of men. The feminists state that these give the rise to the concentration of power and determination of the lives of the women in the hands of men. Through the different aspects of feminism and its underlying concept is made clear. Femininity on the other hand is a complex phenomenon where the concept of masquerade has been incorporated in order to show that there is a dual character among the feminine gender. This dual character comes from the stereotypes they abide by in the society. Sigmund Freud proposes theories like penis envy, Oedipus complex in connection with feminism. From his theory of penis envy the female subordination comes from the realization that a female does not possess a penis and envy for its power and status. However his theory has been severely criticized by female sociologist like Karen Horney who negates his theory and states that for personality development a good family culture for upbringing is necessary. Empirical evidence also states the invalidity of his theory. Jung’s sole belief was that for the development of personality collective unconsciousness was necessary. According to Jung collective unconscious is an amalgamation of various traces and symbols which are passed on by birth and are shared by all peoples in all culture. He portrays feminism in a dual character with his experience from his own family. On the other hand Carl represented the dual nature of feminism from the experiences he had from his own mother in his family. Jung’s belief lies in the fact that individuals are meant to progress in a positive direction. With the idea that self-realization is more or less similar to self actualization. Jung is attributed to the broadening of interpretation whether it is in the case of dreams or free association. He departs and conflicts Sigmund Freud’s overemphasis of sexes. Jung’s theory is more acceptable than Freud’s in general. Contribution of both these psychologists has been indispensable in exploring the arenas of male domination and feminism. References 1. Boeree. G.C, (2006) CARL JUNG, Personality Theories, available at: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/jung.html (Accessed on April 15, 2012) 2. Buchanan, M. (2012), Feminism: The Ugly Truth, eBookIt.com 3. Cherry, K. (n.d.), Freud & Women: Freud's Perspective on Women. available at: http://psychology.about.com/od/sigmundfreud/p/freud_women.htm (accessed on April 15, 2012) 4. Equal Pay Act 1970, (n.d.), The Stationary Office Ltd. available at: http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1970/41/pdfs/ukpga_19700041_en.pdf (accessed on April 15, 2012) 5. England, P. (1993).Theory on Gender/Feminism on Theory, Transaction Publishers 6. 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