Erik Eriksons Theory of Psychosocial Development - Coursework Example

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Late Adulthood Introduction Although it is often perceived that there are few stages of life, such as childhood, adulthood and old age, psychologist Erik Erikson has identified eight distinct stages to the normal life cycle. These stages are roughly divided by age groups but refer more to the types of growth patterns that are experienced rather than specific ages. Erikson labels these stages infancy, toddler years, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood. These stages are each characterized by several general characteristics in physical, cognitive and social/emotional development that the individual must meet and come to terms with as they grow. At a basic level, the infancy period is dominated by the question of trust (Harder, 2002). If the caregiver provides everything the infant needs, the infant learns to trust. If the infant is left in need of something it doesn’t receive, such as food, it learns not to trust. The toddler stage is dominated by the issue of autonomy vs. doubt as it is learned through the important development of toilet training. Early childhood is characterized by the development of independence which brings in the issue of initiative vs. guilt. Middle childhood is the latent period in which children are mostly concerned with school and learn industry vs. inferiority. In adolescence, the primary issue is peer relationships as children learn identity vs. role confusion. Young adulthood, up to 40 years old, is dominated by issues of intimacy vs. isolation as they explore love relationships. Middle adulthood, up to 65 years of age, is dominated by parenting and is primarily concerned with generativity vs. stagnation. Finally, there’s late adulthood, after age 65, in which individuals are wrapped up with issues of integrity vs. despair as they reflect upon their life and accomplishments (2002). Reflecting upon these stages, it was realized that while the researcher is aware of several people over the age of 65, not much is known about this stage of life. To overcome this lack of information, it was determined that research should be conducted into this stage of life through the means of a qualitative interview. Qualitative research interviews attempts to go beyond the world of science to gain a glimpse of how these scientific principles are experienced through the real world subject. Kvale says they are “attempts to understand the world from the subjects’ point of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations” (1996). A good research study is one in which the questions presented are open-ended, giving the respondent plenty of room to explore their own interpretation of question and answer that will eventually provide the research with quotations. Quotations are important because they “reveal the respondents’ levels of emotion, the way in which they have organized the world, their thoughts about what is happening, their experiences, and their basic perceptions. The task for the qualitative evaluator is to provide a framework within which people can respond in a way that represents accurately and thoroughly their point of view” (Patton, 1987). To learn more about the final stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Life Stages, a literature review was conducted to learn what the science says about this development period and then a set of questions was developed for the qualitative interview, which were presented to a close family member who falls within this age group and the answers analyzed. Literature Review According to Erikson, full maturity is only reached after age 65 when the individual is able to finally reflect on their life and accept its major events. The major conflict here is one of ego-integrity or despair, depending upon how well one was able to define oneself and feel fulfilled. For most people, the entrance into the state of grandparent represents a shift into the realm of the older adult. Physically, there are several stages an individual can look forward to as they age. The late adult stage begins roughly around the age of 60, depending upon how well a person kept themselves healthy and stress free throughout their life. “With improved diet, physical fitness, public health, and health care, more adults are reaching age 65 in better physical and mental health than in the past. Trends show that the prevalence of chronic disability among older people is declining … While some disability is the result of more general losses of physiological functions with aging (i.e. normal aging), extreme disability in older persons, including that which stems from mental disorders, is not an inevitable part of aging” (Boeree 1999). Physical decline varies greatly as does the order of the process. Bones become brittle and easily broken, circulation slows and the habits of a lifetime begin to tell on the body. Although it is generally believed that aging is synonymous with mental decline, studies have shown that older adults are often characterized by stable intellectual functioning, a great capacity for change and demonstrate a productive engagement with life (Boeree 1999). The late adult period is characterized by self-evaluation and the results of those conclusions. Erikson characterizes the older adult as an individual who must resolve the ego integrity vs. despair crisis in which the individual must either accept their failures and successes in life to develop a sense of wisdom or those who cannot accept their disappointments and develop a sense of despair and dread regarding their coming death (Niolon, 2007). However, increased health and longevity into the later years has prompted Cohen to propose two human potential phases for those individuals who reach this stage of life with adequate resources for their support. These are labeled Retirement/Liberation and Summing Up/Swan Song. “Cohen points out, however, that most people fare well in retirement. They have the opportunity to explore new interests, activities, and relationships due to retirement’s liberating qualities. … In short, the liberating experience of having more time and an increased sense of freedom can be the springboard for creativity in later life. Creative achievement by older people can change the course of an individual, family, community or culture” (Boeree 1999). A final aspect of the study of human development as it relates to the adult must include a discussion regarding the different approaches an individual might take as it relates to Death and dying. Various cultures approach the idea of death with profoundly different perspectives. Religion often plays a large role in how one approaches the topic, whether the individual believes there is life after death, what form that life will take (i.e. – life at the right hand of the Father or reincarnation on earth) or if the individual believes death is simply the end of existence. The approach one takes to death will determine whether death is feared or embraced, and this cannot be reasonably predicted by a belief in an afterlife. Some who believe in an afterlife may yet fear death because of a perceived punishment for deeds committed in life. Others who feel death is the end of existence may well welcome the thought. While Western society almost goes out of its way to ignore or forget about death as is evidenced by its obsession with youth and the appearance of youth, it is nevertheless fascinated by the concept of death and what might follow after it as is shown in the dominant religions and poetry (Craig & Baucum 2001). There is a similar contrast in the way in which young people view death as compared to how older people view death. While young people may consider the idea of death once in a while, primarily as something that happens to other people or that is too far away to worry about, older people tend to reflect upon it a great deal more, either fearing it or looking forward to it depending upon how they traversed previous life stages. In dying, there are actually two processes at work: the physical process of the body shutting down its various functions and the mental/psychological/spiritual process of letting go. “The spirit of the dying person begins the final process of release from the body, its immediate environment, and all attachments. This release also tends to follow its own priorities, which may include the resolution of whatever is unfinished of a practical nature and reception of permission to ‘let go’ from family members … These two processes need to happen in a way appropriate and unique to the values, beliefs and lifestyle of the dying person” (“Preparing” 1996). Because of the various views on death, there have been significant difficulties in coming to terms with ideas such as human euthanasia and suicide. Although the spirit may be ready and willing to go, the body may not always be so willing to accommodate. Arguments for euthanasia center around the rights of the patient to stop suffering and needless pain in situations for which there can be no relief as well as to allow individuals who are incapable of making this decision on their own, again with no hope of recovery, from becoming a significant drain upon the family in terms of trying to provide medical coverage. Arguments against it are typically centered upon the religious question of whether one can take a life without committing a sin and around the legal issues regarding the definition of murder. Method After conducting the literature review, it was important to identify those questions that had not been satisfactorily answered. These included how do people generally feel about retirement (i.e.: the literature review indicated a time of second childhood) and are they preoccupied with death. These became the research questions. The participant was a 69 year old divorced male with two children by his first wife and three grandchildren. His divorce occurred when the children were young and visitation was limited to short periods in the summers and occasional holidays. He retired at the traditional age of 65 from a professional and entrepreneurial career with an investment portfolio that enables him to maintain a basic middle class lifestyle. Choosing this participant was made simple by his volunteering to help with the new project mentioned during a casual conversation. Despite his enthusiasm, it was explained to him that he did not need to answer any questions he was uncomfortable with and could back out of the interview at any point. The duration of the interview was approximately 45 minutes during which the researcher took notes. Taking place in a comfortable living room on an afternoon when no one else was expected home for hours, the interview was relaxed and easy, although there were a few tense moments. These occurred when questions were asked regarding specific examples of past evaluations, particularly when these concerned negative conclusions. Despite this, the interviewee was eager to further understanding of his relatively new status as an ‘older’ adult and found a means of answering each question in a way that was comfortable for him and enlightening for the researcher. Findings The findings of this research actually do support Erikson’s theory of Integrity vs. Despair and seem to be very comparable to the findings of a similar study conducted with older adults in New Zealand, suggesting a universal rather than cultural application. In terms of this stage being characterized by significant physical changes, the interviewee indicated that he had noticed a degree of deterioration in his physical abilities in recent years. These included sore joints, particularly the knees and a broken elbow from a strange fall a few years before and a greater difficulty in hearing. At the same time, however, he still felt pretty fit and participated in part-time handy-man type work with the son of his second wife. This behavior supported the information found in the literature review indicating that late adults are active thinkers, often learning new skills and developing latent talents into their declining years. “Vocationally and relationally, individuals were trying out new and discarding old roles” (Hoover, 2004: 70). As Erikson’s theory suggests, the interviewee indicated that this same energy also had him thinking much more about his life and his past. He said he often spends time re-evaluating his behaviors of the past and considering through those parts of his life he felt he didn’t live up to his potential. “Among later-life adults … ongoing identity ‘exploration’ was characterized by processes of reintegration, reevaluation and refinement of important identity elements from the past as well as readjustments to the inevitable changes that life brings. Reintegration was a process of reweaving back into the fabric of life important identity elements that had been set aside for various reasons before it became ‘too late’” (Hoover, 2004: 70). While there were many things he regretted, the interviewee also indicated that he had found peace with most of them and was still working through others. Part of the reason for his urgency, he said, was because he suddenly realized he was only a step away from death and wanted to be sure his affairs were in order whenever that fatal day dawned. His religious beliefs required that he die with a clean conscience, having atoned in some way or another for his more grievous sins in life so that he might spend eternity in heaven. This supports the literature in that he was more deeply religious than he had been in previous years and that he considered death in such concrete terms. His re-evaluation and attempts at atonement suggest support for Erikson’s theory as well. Conclusion In conducting this research, it was discovered that while many older adults do experience decline in their physical abilities, these are often not significant enough to prevent them from living a very active and fulfilling life which, when properly prepared for ahead of time, can amount to a second childhood. Late adults are now able to explore new areas of thought and behavior that they didn’t have time or resources for in earlier life and are often encouraged to do so by a pressing need to try it before it’s too late. This is true in more ways than one as the individual goes through a period of re-evaluation of their identities, assessing their past life and determining whether they have done what they felt was important or if they have failed in some important way. This is what Erikson calls Integrity vs. Despair. These concepts are supported by the answers provided in the quantitative interview conducted locally with a 69 year old man in the middle class. However, they are also supported by interviews conducted by Hoover in New Zealand, which suggests these developmental stages are much more universal than just cultural manifestations. In conducting this research, the researcher discovered how difficult it can be to find information that relates exactly to the topic being explored and then to formulate research questions that accomplish the purpose of the research without becoming too invasive or offensive to the interviewee. The research suffered from a lack of strong references and the concise nature of the report, permitting only surface details to be explored. In addition, a close relationship between the researcher and the interviewee could have skewed a great deal of the research. The researcher’s questions may not have been as generic as supposed due to underlying relationship history or unintended vocal inflections or body language. At the same time, the interviewee might have had ulterior motives in answering the questions, either intentionally attempting to match the theories regarding late adulthood to make things easy on the researcher, attempting to pass along wisdom to the researcher or attempting to beg patience or understanding from the researcher. References Boeree, C. (1999). Mental Health: A Report from the Surgeon General. US Public Health Service. Craig, G & Baucum, D. (2001). Human Development (9th Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc. Harder, Arlene F. (2002). “The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson.” Learning Place Online. Available December 5, 2007 from Hooker, Kenneth R. (2004). The Future of Identity: Centennial Reflections on the Legacy of Erik Erikson. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Kvale, S. (1996). Inter Views: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Niolon, R. (2007). “Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development.” Resources for Students and Professionals [online]. PsychPages. Available December 5, 2007 from Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. “Preparing for Approaching Death.” (1996). North Central Florida Hospice [online]. Available December 5, 2007 from Appendix A – Research questions How do you feel about retirement? Have you noticed any physical changes brought about by age? Do you think about your past often? Have you evaluated your past and come to a conclusion about your life? Would you care to share if your assessment was positive or negative? Would you care to share any specific examples? Do you find yourself thinking about death more? Read More