The History of Psychology - Assignment Example

ANSWER Wundt is considered to be the founder of psychology as a formal, academic discipline. His place in the evolution of psychology can be considered from two points of view. 1. He can be evaluated in terms of the nature of his system that is what he believed psychology to be and what it aims and methods are. His contribution may also be considered from the point of view of his influence as a leader in the new scientific discipline that he founded. Wundt believed that the subject matter of psychology is experience, which is to be studied by self-observation, or technically by introspection, which implies an objective, analytic observation of one’s own conscious processes. “Introspection cannot be entirely eliminated from psychology even if only as providing useful reports on the processes connecting stimulus and response.” (Thomas Leahey, 2004) The primary aim of psychology is the analysis of conscious experience into its elements. Once this systematic analysis into elements had been accomplished, the manner in which the elements are inter-related or compounded could be determined. So, it was a two-fold task-1. Analysis of consciousness 2. Discovering the laws of synthesis. The first involve the breaking up of consciousness into elements, which is in keeping with structuralism. But the second corresponds to the Gestalt view of laws that govern a perception of whole. Wundt wanted to apply the systematic, experimental methods of science to the study of human consciousness. He exposed individuals to visual stimuli and asked them to report what they perceived. The school of thought that arose from the work of Wundt and his colleagues is called structuralism. The basic goal of structuralists was to study consciousness by breaking it down into its components: perception, sensation and affection. ANSWER 2. According to evolutionary psychology it is possible to understand human cognition through the history of evolution. Evolutionary psychology proposes that the brain comprises several functional mechanisms. They are called psychological adaptations. They are evolved by natural selection to benefit the survival and reproduction of the organism. They include mechanisms like vision, hearing, memory and all others except those that are specific to age and sex. These mechanisms are universal in the species. Evolutionary psychology is closely linked to socio-biology. It assumes that just like the internal physical organs like heart, lungs, kidneys etc. cognition also has a genetic basis and has been evolved by natural selection. Hence, cognitive processes can be understood by studying the survival and reproductive functions they might serve. The role of evolution has long been studied in case of animals. This is how evolutionary approach fostered comparative psychology. Psychologists study animals for some of the following reasons – Psychologists study behaviour, and animal behaviour is interesting for its own sake. Knowledge gained from the study of animal behaviour can provide insights into human behaviour. The lives of human beings and animals interact in several contexts. Some dogs or other pets are closely attached to their masters. Animals kept on farms and in zoos also interact with human beings. From the practical point of view studying animals is more convenient. They reproduce rapidly and their behaviour can be studied across several generations. In experimentation, they can be controlled easily (of course taking care of the ethical issues involved.) According to Thomas Leahey, “ ---- evolution , however, gave comparative psychology a powerful impetus, placing it in a wider biological context and giving it a specific rationale. In the later nineteenth century, comparative psychology grew in strength, until in the twentieth century, learning theories studied animals in preference to humans.’ ( Leahey, 2004 ) We take for granted the concept of continuity between animals and human beings. Human beings and animals are one creation with continuity of development between them. If discontinuity is accepted, there is no point in studying animals in order to understand human behaviour. Comparative psychologists have carried out studies in the evolution of different species of animals, their instinctive behaviour, how animals ‘learn’ in natural environment and the application of the learning theories to human beings. Animal communication is also studied in order to understand communication process in human beings. Comparative psychologists study the different forms of social organizations, social dominance as evident in animals and human beings and the relationship between parent and offspring. All these studies enable them to understand the cognitive development in human beings, who are a superior creation in the chain of evolution. ANSWER 3 The two camps, structuralism and functionalism debated strongly, yet neither emerged as a clear winner. Ultimately the two movements subsided and were replaced by other schools of thought, one of those being psychoanalysis, which was proposed by Freud. His main aim was very practical, that of providing therapeutic aid for neurotic patients. Freud was the first psychologist who systematically attempted to explore the unconscious part of human personality. He proposed a theory that the greater part of our personality lies buried deep in our unconscious. He compared mental phenomena with an iceberg floating on the surface of the ocean. We cannot study a human being by observing his overt behaviour because most of our suppressed feelings and desires lie buried in the unconscious and continually influence our behaviour. Freud reasoned that the unconscious exists on the basis of the following reasons: Dreams prove the existence of the unconscious Forgetfulness Slips of the tongue Somnambulism Neuroses and psychoses The mental process comprises of three qualities – the conscious, the sub-conscious and the unconscious. Conscious relates to the phenomena that we are aware of at any given moment. Sub conscious lies between the conscious and unconscious and consists of experiences that we can be aware of if we attend to them. We are totally unaware of the unconscious and it is not accessible except under very special circumstances. Leahey has stated that “Freud found that the cause of hysteria was repressed, traumatic memories. He believed that the symptoms manifesting from these repressed memories could be cured by expressing repressed feelings, such as grief, rage and fear.” ( Leahey, 2004 ) ANSWER 4 Main ideas of gestalt thinkers – The structural school of thought was based on traditional scientific methodology and the structuralists divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analysed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of the object. The word ‘gestalt’ means form or whole. Gestalt effect refers to the capacity of the brain to perceive the whole instead of a collection of lines or curves, particularly with respect to visual recognition of figures. In short, the gestalt theory states that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts’. The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of pragnanz. According to this law, there is a tendency to order experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetric and simple. The gestalt laws which allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation include –a) the law of closure) law of similarity. C) law of proximity) law of symmetry e) law of continuity f) law of common fate. Contributors to the gestalt tradition – Max Wertheimer – He explained that thinking happens in two ways – 1. Productive thinking- Gaining insight helps to solve the problem. Insight is a quick and unplanned response to the situations. 2. Reproductive thinking – solving a problem on the basis of previous experience. When a person is confronted with a problem, he tries to examine the relationship between its various parts or aspects, tries to understand their purpose, and tries to understand the concept or the idea in its totality. The difference is that understanding in this case happens intentionally, by reproductive thinking. Wertheimer unique contribution was to insist that the gestalt is perceptually primary, defining the parts of which it was composed, rather than being a secondary quality emerging from those parts. According to Leahey, “The field concept proved capable of indefinite extension to psychological problems. Not only could it be applied to simple visual experiences and problem solving, but also to creativity and social psychology.” ( Leahey. 2004 ) Max Wertheimer was the founder of Gestalt psychology. Closely associated with him were two other Germans, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. They contributed a great deal to Gestalt psychology, in fact, so much that it has become conventional to think of all three as founders. Kohler wrote a book called “The Place of Value in a World of Facts” (1938). He attempted to work out a theory of value, including aesthetic value on the basis of the Gestalt quality which he called ‘requiredness”. One part of a visual field for example, may demand completion in some specific way, rather as a melody may require resolution. Another German psychologist Perkins believes that insight deals with three processes- unconscious leap in thinking, the increased amount of speed in mental processing and short circuiting which occurs in normal reasoning. Hence we can conclude that Perkins, Kohler and Wertheimer fit into the Gestalt tradition. REFERENCES 1. Chaplin , P.J. (1919). Systems and theories of psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.. 2. Leahey, Thomas. (2004). A History of psychology: main currents in psychological thought. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. 3. Mallim, Tony, Birch Ann, & Hayward Sheila. (1996). Comparative psychology, human and animal behaviour. London: Macmillan Press Ltd. Read More