Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology - Research Paper Example

Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology Biological The biological theoretical perspective in explaining human behavior emphasizes that a person’s behavior is actually a product of the anatomical and biological processes which exists in his body. They maintain that “much of human and animal behavior can be explained in terms of the bodily structures and biochemical processes that allow organisms to behave” (Weiten, 2007, p. 14). At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, psychology also took an interest in the physiological aspects of man. This was the time when many young scientists started to take apart human biological processes; they also took the time to come up with theories and explanations in order to explain how the body works. In other words, advocates of the biological perspective looked to the body to explain the mind (Johnston, 2003). They looked at the “influence of hormones, genes, the brain, and the central nervous system on the way to think, feel, and act” (Johnston, 2003, p. 15). They are convinced that the manifestations of human behavior are rooted in a person’s biological processes. The biological perspective can be further categorized into four groups: the physiological, the ontological, the evolutionary, and the functional (Kalat, 2007). The physiological category explains human behavior in relation to the different activities of the brain and the other organs (Kalat, 2007). This utilizes the different chemical elements of the body like the neurotransmitters, hormones, organs, and muscle contractions in order to explain the different bodily functions (Kalat, 2007). The ontogenic category “describes how a structure or behavior develops, including the influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and their interactions” (Kalat, 2007, p. 4). The word ontogenic is of Greek origin and it means origin or genesis of being. And with these claims, this category explains how, say the ability to control impulses, is one that develops gradually from a person’s infancy up to his teenage years, and it reflects the gradual maturation of the frontal parts of the brain (Kalat, 2007). The third category under biological perspective is the evolutionary explanation. This explanation follows the pattern of or evolution of behavior. This is often manifested with goose bumps which are seen when people are frightened (Kalat, 2007). In humans, these goose bumps would not create any effect on other people because they can hardly see it. However, among mammals with longer hair and fur, these goose bumps can make the animal even more terrifying and intimidating (Kalat, 2007). “The evolutionary explanation of human goose bumps is that behavior evolved in our remote ancestors and we inherited the mechanism” (Kalat, 2007, p. 4). Finally, the functional explanation is focused on why a structure evolved as it did. Advocates of the functional explanation sought to assess how certain genes drift within a population – how certain good and even bad genes are spread within small populations. And in some larger populations where other qualities or genes are more prevalent, they are impervious to other genetic influences (Kalat, 2007). The functional explanation assesses this pattern of behavior. Behavioral The behavioral perspective is said to have started with rats. Years of watching rats navigate themselves through mazes prompted psychologist John Watson to arrive at the realization that he could accurately predict where rats would navigate in the maze, especially when they knew where food was to be found (Johnston, 2003). Based on his observations, he then suggested that maybe man’s behavior is as simple as A B C. The letter A refers to the antecedent or the environmental trigger; B refers to the behavioral response to the environment trigger: and C now refers to the consequence or what happens next (Johnson, 2003). Based on his experiments, Watson believed that the best way to explain human behavior is through observation. And that behavior often starts as a response to the environment (Johnston, 2003). The behavioral perspective is also rooted in Ivan Pavlov’s reasoning (Sandhya, 2003). Ivan Pavlov is known for his stimulus-response theory which were observed when a dog salivated at the sight of meat and then later when the smell of meat already made the dog salivate (Quinn, 2000). He applied the same concept to other stimuli – a tuning fork – accompanied by the immediate delivery of food to the dog. Later, it was observed that the dog would also salivate when they heard the sound of the tuning fork. “Pavlov considered that this salivation was a learned response as opposed to an innate reflex that termed the process ‘conditioning’” (Quinn, 2000, p. 112). In other words behaviorists believed that by carefully controlling the stimulus in the environment, behavior can actually be modified in predictable ways. Through learning, behavior is shaped and conditioned responses to stimuli can be predicted and explained (Sandhya, 2003). Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is considered to be a chronic and disabling brain disorder (Medicine.net, 2010). The symptoms for this disorder may be classified into positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. The positive symptoms are those which are not seen among healthy people and often manifest as hallucinations, delusions (sometimes, delusions of persecution), thought disorders, and movement disorders (agitated body movement, catatonia) (Medicine.net., 2010). Negative symptoms are those which are considered as disruptions in the normal emotions and behaviors of man (Medicine.net, 2010). These symptoms are sometimes mistaken for depression and other mental health disorders. They include: flat affect, lack of pleasure in life, lack of ability to begin and finish activities, and speaking little, even when forced to interact (Medicine.net, 2010). For cognitive symptoms, they are also often difficult to identify and can only be detected when tests are carried out (Medicine.net., 2010). They include: poor executive functioning or the inability to understand information and utilize such information to make decisions; trouble paying attention; problems with working memory or difficulties in using information immediately after learning it (Medicine.net., 2010). The causes of schizophrenia have not been fully determined as yet; however, several theories and researches have been conducted and suggested covering the possible causes of the disorder. Some theorists set forth that the interaction of genetic endowment and environmental upheaval during the development of the brain may be a possible cause of schizophrenia (Surgeon General, n.d). Theorists cite the family, twin, and adoption studies where immediate biological relatives of people with schizophrenia had about 10 times greater risk as compared to the general population (Surgeon General, n.d). Brain abnormalities are also considered as causes for schizophrenia with many of these patients exhibiting enlarged cranial ventricles and decreased cerebral size (Surgeon General, n.d). Evidence also points to unusual cortical laterality among schizophrenics with dysfunction localizing on their left hemisphere. Some scientists claim that the laterality may be due to prenatal injury or insult to the left hemisphere (Surgeon General, n.d). Studies have also revealed that there were anatomical abnormalities in different parts of the brain for patients with schizophrenia. Temporal lobe dysfunction was often linked with positive symptoms as seen in imaging studies; irregularities in the parts of the brain related to speech were also related to disorganized speech; prefrontal lobe dysfunction often manifested through negative and cognitive symptoms most especially among those who had problems in relation to volition and planning (Surgeon General, n.d). One of the more popular and common elements found among schizophrenics is the fact that they often manifested with excessive levels of neurotransmitter dopamine. Some studies claim that schizophrenia is related to variations in dopamine receptors and other studies claim variations in the serotonin system (Surgeon General, n.d). Since the causes of schizophrenia have not been established, treatments and interventions for this disease mostly focus on providing symptomatic relief. Treatments available mainly revolve around anti-psychotic medications and psychosocial therapy. Anti-psychotic meds include: Thorazin, Haldol, Perphenazin, and Prolixin (Medicine.net., 2010). Clozapine is one of the new second generation anti-psychotics and is used to treat hallucinations and breakouts from reality. These antipsychotics however have been known to create side-effects on patients and these side-effects mostly account for low medicine compliance. Side-effects include: drowsiness, dizziness, blurred vision, palpitations, skin rashes, sensitivity to the sun, and menstrual problems in women (Medicine.net, 2010). Psychosocial therapy and treatments for schizophrenics include: illness management skills, integrated treatment for co-occurring substance abuse, rehabilitation, family education, cognitive behavioral therapy, and self-help groups (Medicine.net., 2010). Schizophrenia and the biological perspective In using the biological perspective to explain schizophrenia, we consider the biological and anatomical processes which are involved in the disease process. Biological theories explaining schizophrenia include several explanations. One of these models of explanations is the Nicotinic Receptor Model which basically shows that “relatively common genetic mutation in nicotinic receptors, found in 10% of the population, caused difficulties in sensory gating and could be a predisposing factor for the impaired cognition and psychosis seen in schizophrenia” (Spollen, 2002). This model also explained that due to biological dysfunctions in the alpha7 nicotinic receptor, a dramatic increase in the use of nicotine among patients with schizophrenia was indicated (Spollen, 2002). The Glutamate Model is also another model which points out that glutamate has been found in high concentrations in the brain and most of these are not even acting as neurotransmitters. Glutamate is actually an excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and this dysfunction is actually in many neurologic diseases (Spollen, 2002). Another biological explanation for schizophrenia focuses on the role of dopamine. Dopamine transporters often act as reuptake sites just as those seen in serotonin receptors; and when reuptake sites are blocked or overly stimulated, these produce brain dysfunctions which often manifest in the different symptoms of schizophrenia (Spollen, 2002). The effect of dopamine and its subsequent disruption is said to be the cause for the deficits in attention and executive functioning which are often seen in schizophrenia patients (Spollen, 2002). Genetic techniques of models also point out that the single point mutation in the COMT gene causes its reduction in activity. Because of this effect, dopamine activity is increased and also causes changes in the executive functioning of the brain (Spollen, 2002). Behavioral perspective and schizophrenia Since the basis of the behavioral perspective is on conditioned and learned behavior, advocates of the behavioral perspective actually do not consider schizophrenia a disease or an entity. Instead, they consider schizophrenia as a variety of learned maladaptive behaviors (Shean, 2004). “Consequently, there is no specific behavioral theory for schizophrenia because behaviorists argue there is no such illness; there are only maladaptive behaviors controlled by environmental contingencies that tend to be evidence by people called schizophrenic” (Shean, 2004, p. 165). Behaviorists also advocate that many of the symptoms of schizophrenia are just symptoms, but may not wholly be credited to schizophrenia. They discredit the various symptoms of schizophrenia as symptoms which would qualify as a disease process (Hickey, 2010). Mock diagnosis and treatment plan This is the case of Allan, 34 years old, married, with 2 children. He was diagnosed when he was 23 years old for schizophrenia. He was placed on Haldol and later on Clozapine. Allan was admitted to the mental health clinic for exacerbation of symptoms in relation to his disorder. He apparently stopped taking his medications for a week because the meds were causing him to vomit and to be dizzy most times of the day. He was fired from his job 2 weeks prior to admission and he was not seen since then. Three days prior to admission, he was found wandering on the highway without any clothes and mumbling to himself. He was also paranoid and suspicious of the people around him. When he was admitted into the mental health clinic, he was first sedated because he was becoming physically violent with the staff and he was also uncooperative during the assessment and treatment process. His identity was not established at first because there was no identification found on him. However, in the hospital he was immediately identified because of a “missing person” report on him. When he was also identified as a schizophrenic, he was taken to the mental health clinic where his family was waiting. In order to initiate the diagnostic process, his family was first interviewed regarding his health history. Allan was not lucid so no reliable information from him was forthcoming. His wife apprised us of his medical history which highlighted, among several things, the fact that his father also had schizophrenia; and that neurological tests indicated high dopamine levels. His medical history also indicates that her mother was in a minor car crash while she was 2 months pregnant with him. Although no apparent trauma to either one of them manifested after the car crash, undeniably, his previous doctors agreed that the crash may have had an effect on his neurological development. Coupled with environmental factors -- with his father being schizophrenic himself -- the biological contribution to his condition cannot be ignored. Based on the behavioral perspective, the symptoms that Allan manifests cannot be considered as a mental health disorder. His symptoms when taken individually may actually indicate symptoms of depression, not schizophrenia. His hallucinations and delusions may actually be credited to depression, to mental trauma and shock from his being fired from work. From a biological perspective, he should be given Clozapine as an anti-psychotic. He should also be given medications to counter the dizziness and the nausea of his meds. His drug intake must be monitored while he is in the mental health clinic and when he will be released. This is in order to ensure medication compliance and consequently prevent a relapse. He should also undergo psychosocial therapy especially those which would involve illness management skills. By learning illness management skills, the patient can cope with the symptoms of his disease and also prevent such symptoms from causing uncontrollable and unmanageable psychotic symptoms. His therapy must also include cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) which would help focus Allan’s thoughts and behavior. Cognitive-behavioral therapy would also help eliminate symptoms that are persistent despite medications (Medicine.net, 2010). CBT can also reduce the severity of the symptoms felt by the patient and it teaches the patient to distinguish between reality and delusion. The family must also be educated as regards the disease. They must also undergo some form of therapy in order to assist their coping capabilities and improve their support mechanisms for the patient. Finally, the patient can also be encouraged to join support groups in order to offer support and comfort to each other and make them feel less isolated as schizophrenics. Works Cited Etiology of Schizophrenia (n.d) Surgeon General. Retrieved 03 March 2010 from http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/mentalhealth/chapter4/sec4_1.html Hickey, P. (2010) Schizophrenia Is Not An Illness (Part 1). Behaviorism and Mental Health. Retrieved 03 March 2010 from http://behaviorismandmentalhealth.com/2010/01/21/schizophrenia-is-not-an-illness/ Johnston, J. (2003) The complete idiot's guide to psychology. Indiana: Alpha Books Kalat, J. (2007) Biological Psychology. California: Cengage Learning Quinn, F. (2000) The principles and practice of nurse education. UK: Stanley Thorne Sandhya, K. (2003) General Psychology. India: Anmol Publications Schizophrenia (2010) Medicine.net. Retrieved 03 March 2010 from http://www.medicinenet.com/schizophrenia/article.htm Shean, G. (2004) Understanding and treating schizophrenia: contemporary research, theory, and practice. New York: Haworth Press Spollen, J. (2002) The Latest Theories on the Neurobiology of Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia.com. Retrieved 03 March 2010 from http://www.schizophrenia.com/newsletter/allnews/2002/newnuero6-02.htm Weiten, W. (2007) Psychology: Themes and Variations. California: Cengage Learning Read More