The History of Psychology and the Evolution of Its Modern - Assignment Example

Introduction to Psychology Define Psychology. Discuss the History of Psychology and the Evolution of Its Modern Perspectives Definition of PsychologyPsychology is a scientific field that involves the study of the mental life. The phenomena and the condition of the mental life are both studied. Phenomena include things such as desires, decisions, feelings, reasoning’s, and cognitions. Phenomena are superficially considered and its complexity and variety is said to leave a confused impression on the spectator (James, 2007). History of Psychology The interest in explaining the human behavior has always been there; it is not until the 1870s that psychology became formally a science. The foundation of psychology can be traced back to the medicine and philosophy of the ancient Greece, Egypt, and Rome. The philosophers of the time were interested in knowing if the thinking part of the human being could be studied scientifically (Doyle-Portillo and Pastorino, 2008). Psychology is mostly interested in the study of the mind and what we consider today as psychology was then considered as part of medicine. Those who brought psychology into the scientific field were mostly philosophers and physicians. The early approaches of psychology were structuralism, functionalism and psychoanalysis. Structuralism was brought about by Wilhelm Wundt, functionalism by William James, and psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud. In the late 1920s, functionalism was replaced by behaviorism by John Watson. Other forms of psychology such as humanism and cognitive psychology emerged much later (Doyle-Portillo and Pastorino, 2008). Evolution of the Modern Perspectives of Psychology From the historical perspective of psychology it is evident that the modern psychology is quite a broad profession. Most of the modern perspectives of psychology get their basis from the historical school of thought. The modern psychology has seven perspectives or orientations on behavior. The seven orientations on behavior include; evolutionary, psychodynamic, sociocultural, humanistic, behavioral, cognitive and biological. The training an individual receives and personal views on the behavior influence the perspective(s) a modern psychologist can adopt (Doyle-Portillo and Pastorino, 2008). Describe the Major Divisions of the Nervous System and Explain Their Major Functions Billions of extremely specialized nerve cells called the neurons make up the nervous system. The neurons constitute the nerve fibers found in the body and the brain. The nervous system is divided into two main divisions and they are the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the central nervous system (CNS). Central Nervous System (CNS) All the neurons in the spinal cord and the brain constitute the central nervous system (CNS). The CNS integrates and coordinates all the bodily functions and processes all the incoming neural messages and transmits the commands to the different sections of the body. Neural messages are sent and received by the CNS through the spinal cord (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). Spinal cord is a trunk line that consists of neurons that connect the brain to the peripheral nervous system. The spinal cord is housed by the spinal column which is a hollow section of the vertebral column. The spinal cord has branches of spinal nerves between each pair of the spinal column vertebrae. These spinal nerves connect with the body’s sensory receptors, the muscles and the glands. All the activities of the right and left sides of the body are coordinated by the spinal cord. It is also responsible for the simple fast action reflexes that are not dependent on the brain (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is composed of all the neurons that form the nerve fibers. These nerve fibers connect the CNS to the rest of the body. PNS is consists of two sets of nerve fibers; the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the somatic nervous system. The action of the body skeletal muscles is controlled by the somatic nervous system (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). The ANS maintains the basic life processes. It regulates the bodily functions that individuals do not control consciously. The regulation is on a 24 hours basis without stop. These bodily functions include digestion, respiration and arousal. The ANS must continue working when the individual is asleep and it maintains life processes even when the individual is in a prolonged coma state or under anesthesia (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). The ANS deals with two types of survival matters; those that threaten the organism and those that involve bodily maintenance. The ANS is further divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system to enhance its functioning. They work in opposition in order to finish their work. The sympathetic nervous system deals with the governance of the responses that are arise due to emergency situations. The parasympathetic nervous system deals with the monitoring of the routine operations of the internal functioning of the body (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). Describe the Structure of the Brain and the Functions of Each Major Structure Brain is the most vital organ of the central nervous system and it has three interconnected layers. The deepest part of the brain is a structure called the brain stem. The brain stem is involved with the autonomic processes such as the breathing, the heart rate, digestion, and swallowing. The limbic system covers the central core and this system is involved with memory, emotion and motivation processes. The cerebrum covers the limbic system and the brain stem. This region is the most crucial part of the human brain. The cerebral cortex is the surface layer of the cerebrum. Integration of sensory information, coordination of movements, and the facilitation of the abstract reasoning and thinking are some of the functions of the cerebrum (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). Brain Stem The brain stem consists of the medulla, pons, reticular formation, thalamus and cerebellum. Medulla is located at the top of the spinal cord and it is the center for blood pressure, breathing and the beating of the heart. Above the medulla is a section called pons and it offers input to the other structures that are located in the cerebellum and brain stem. Reticular formation serves as the brain guard; it is composed of a dense rework of neurons. Reticular formation attends to new stimulation by arousing the cerebral cortex; it also keeps the brain alert during sleep. The thalamus provides a channel through which the incoming sensory information is passed to the appropriate region of the cerebral cortex where processing of information is done. Cerebellum controls the bodily movements, maintains the equilibrium, and controls posture (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). The Limbic System The limbic system consists of the hippocampus, hypothalamus and amygdala. It mediates the emotional states, motivated behaviors and the memory processes. It is also involved in the regulation of the blood pressure, blood sugar levels, body temperatures and other housekeeping activities. The hippocampus is the largest part of the limbic system structure and it plays a role in the acquisition of memories. The amygdala controls emotions and creates emotional memories. Hypothalamus is the smallest part of the brain and the most vital part of the brain structure. It contains minute bundles of neurons that are involved in the regulation of physiological processes in motivated behaviors such as sexual arousal, drinking, eating and temperature regulation. The internal body equilibrium (homeostasis) is maintained by the hypothalamus (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). The Cerebrum It occupies the largest portion of the brain. The function of cerebrum is the regulation of brain’s higher emotional and cognitive functions. The corpus callosum (cerebral hemispheres) is divided into four parts or brain lobes. The frontal lobe controls the monitor and cognitive activities such as setting goals and planning. The parietal lobe controls the sensations of pain, touch and temperature. The occipital lobe controls the visual information. The temporal lobe controls the processes of hearing (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). What Is The Meaning Of Reliability And Validity Within Psychological Measurement? Describe Self-Report Measures and Behavioral Measures Reliability Reliability is the extent to which a measuring instrument yields consistent results. In psychology, reliability is calculated by (a) comparing the scores on two or more same instrument administrations, it is also called test-retest reliability or (b) by comparing the ratings obtained from the two or more judges who are observing the same phenomenon; it is also called inter-rater reliability (Brannon and Feist, 2009). Reliability is usually expressed in the form of percentages or correlation coefficients. Correlation coefficient expresses the level of connection between the two sets of scores. Participants obtain nearly the same scores on two sets of test administration when the correlation reliability is high, that between 0.80 and 0.90. Percentages are used to indicate the level of agreement between independent ratings of the observers. A high agreement such as between 85 percent and 95 percent indicates that the instrument is capable of producing almost similar ratings from the interviewers (two or more) (Brannon and Feist, 2009). There are four important reliability principles; (a) there is no common reliability coefficient for any psychological evaluation, (b) when the psychological measures are not reliable, they are rendered invalid, (c) reliability is the minimum but not sufficient enough to be used as a criterion for validity, and (d) when the reliability of the measure decreases, the validity also decreases (Austin and Leong, 2006). Validity Validity is the capability of an instrument to measure what it purports to measure. In other words, its capability of measuring what it is was designed to measure. Measuring scales can be reliable but lack the accuracy or validity. A psychologist determines the validity of a measuring instrument by making similarities on the scores with an outside criterion or an independent instrument. The independent instrument is calibrated to a particular validity standard (Brannon and Feist, 2009). Self-Report Measures These are verbal answers to the questions posed by the researcher and they are either written or spoken. Self reports are useful in the investigation of criminal acts and sexual activities. Reliable ways have to be devised by the researcher in order to make meaningful comparisons on the individual’s varying responses. The responses are usually made on questionnaires and during the interviews (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). Behavioral Measures Behavioral measures are used to study the overt actions, and reactions that can be observed and recorded. The most preferable method used is observation. Researchers utilize this tool in a precise, planned and systematic manner. The primary focus of observation is the product or the process of the behavior (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2010). References Austin, J. T. & Leong, F. T. L. (2006). The psychological research handbook: A guide for graduate students and research assistants. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Brannon, L. & Feist, J. (2009). Health psychology: An introduction to behavior and health. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. Gerrig, R. J. & Zimbardo, P. (2010). Psychology and life. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. James, W. (2007). The principles of psychology. New York, NY: Cosimo, Inc. Read More