Effects of Abstract and Concrete Total Recall on Undergraduate Students - Research Paper Example

Effects of and Concrete Total Recall on Undergraduate Psychology Concrete words can be recalled easily as compared to abstract words because of imagery. This is in accordance with Paivio’s (1986) dual coded theory. The following study aims to investigate the effect abstract and concrete words total recall on undergraduate students. In the investigation, it was hypothesized that these students would recall more concrete words than abstract words. A list of fifteen concrete words was read out to a group of participants within fifteen seconds timed with a stop watch. The same procedure was done for abstract list of words. The independent variable was taken to be the number of words recalled while the dependent variable was the list of words either concrete or abstract. The results supported the dual code theory since concrete words were easier to recall than abstract words. Introduction Allan Paivio’s dual-coding theory tries to give the same weight to both verbal and non-verbal processing. He indicates that the human cognition is specialized that it attempts to deal simultaneously with language and non-verbal events and objects. He further explains that human language system is queer since it tries to deal directly with linguistic inputs and outputs and at the same time serving symbolic functions with respect to non-verbal objects, behaviors and events. All representational theories must thus accommodate this dual functionality of human cognition (Paivio, 2007). The assumption in the dual-coding theory is that human brain has two cognitive subsystems. One subsystem specializes in imagery by processing and representing nonverbal objects or events. The second subsystem deals with the language that accompanies the event or object. Paivio also indicates that that there are two different representational units namely “imagens” and “logogens”. Imagens deal with images while logogens deal with verbal entities. The theory states that processing can be representational, referential and associative processing. Another learning theory that explores human cognitive skills is the Cognitive Flexibility theory. The theory by Spiro, Feltovitch and Coulson focuses on learning in complex situations, for instance, where time is very limited. It explores the ability of the human brain to spontaneously restructure knowledge and represent it when one is required to recall. According to this theory, the process of recalling involves reconstruction rather than actual retrieval of contents from human memory (Spiro, 2011). Cognitive flexibility theory is mostly concerned with the transfer of learnt knowledge by representing it in verbal form whether spoken or written. For this reason, good memory is considered by the ability of human beings to restructure knowledge and represent it any many forms of expression. The theory has the assertion that effective learning depends on the context and thus instructions should be presented specifically. It is applied in environments that use interactive technologies such as projectors or hypertexts. Information Processing Theory by George Miller is another learning theory that is concerned with the way human beings process instructions. The theory uses two fundamental concepts that are vital in information processing framework and cognitive psychology. The first concept in the theory is concerned with chunking of memory and the capacities of human brain short term memory. A chunk is considered a memory unit of useful information. Miller (1956) indicates that human short term can only hold about five to nine chunks of information. The nine units include seven positive units and two negative units (Leonard, 2007). The second concept of the information processing theory is the Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE) as presented by Miller, Pribam & Galanter (1960. Miller et al. proposed that the concept should replace stimulus-replace as the basic unit of human behavior. TOTE is a cycle in which an operation is repeated until a goal is achieved or totally abandoned. In this study, fifteen words can be considered as fifteen chunks of information. However, the study is mostly focused on dual coding theory (Miller & Hirst, 2009). Cognitive Load Theory by John Sweller indicates that learning is in line with human cognitive architecture. Sweller recognizes Miller’s information processing theory and builds up on this theory by implying that short term memory units constitute a schema that creates human knowledge base. As per this study, prior knowledge of concrete and abstract words can assist in the recalling process. Some words may be suggestive of other words, and they will assist the participants to recall the presented words easily. Miller explains that long term memory is composed of sophisticated structures that assist human beings in thinking and solving problems. The theory states that the difference between an expert and a novice learner is that the novice learner has not acquired the knowledge schema of the expert (Gog, 2010). Contiguity theory is another learning theory created by Edwin Guthrie. The theory indicates that a stimuli accompanied by movement tends to have its occurrence accompanied by movement. Guthrie argues that stimulus and responses affect specific bran sensory-motor patterns and that human beings learn movements and not behaviors. However, he states that rewards and punishments do not have significant impacts on learning because they come after stimuli and responses association has occurred. The theory indicates that learning occurs only in one trial, but many trials enhance a general response. The unique thing about the theory is that human beings learn the last thing in response to a specific stimulus. Another proposal by the theory is that forgetting is due to the interferences that occur with time and not due to time itself (Balogun, 2011) Levels of processing theory by Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggest that stimulus information processing is dependent on the characteristics of the information. It also states that information processed deeply is likely to be remembered easily than information processed shallowly. Information containing captive ideas such as strong images is likely to be processed at deeper levels. Moreover, information that has more attention is likely to be processed deeply than other events or stimuli. It also suggests that human beings are likely to remember meaningful information because it is processed deeply than meaningless information. The theory also indicates that information processing is done automatically and unconsciously. It also suggests that attention is an interruption to the process of information processing in the brain (Craik et al, 2008). Therefore, in accordance with Paivio’s dual-coding theory and in line with Spiro’s cognitive flexibility theory, this procedure was conducted to determine the effect of imagery on total recall of abstract and concrete words. The undergraduate students who are participants in this study are presented with a list of abstract words and a list of concrete words. With the implication of imagery in concrete words, it was hypothesized that concrete words would be recalled easily than abstract words. Method Participants: The target participants in this study are a group of senior undergraduate students. The senior undergraduate students are ideal for this experiment because they can easily understand the lists of concrete and abstract words (Manning, 2010). . Their level of understanding English words is vital in the experiment so that they can recall the words. The sample (N-11) which was chosen through opportunity sampling as the most convenient method had a mean of 16.45 and a deviation of 0.93. Three of the participants were female. The ages of these 11 participants averages 25.18 years with a deviation of 2.18. The ages of these students is thus over 21 years of age meaning they have the legal consent of to be able to participate in this study. The participants are promised incentives for their participation. Materials: • A pen and paper should be provided for each student to fill out the words as they are displayed on the projector screen. • A list of 15 abstract words to be displayed on the projector screen. • A list of 15 concrete words to be displayed on the projector screen. • A stop watch timed for 15 seconds for each list of words. A summary sheet for each participant to write a list of abstract and concrete words the participants recalled. • A projector screen to display the two lists of words. Procedure: Two experiment rooms are set up with a desk for each participant and all materials required for the experiment are placed on each desk with the exception of the summary sheet. A projector screen is placed in a position that is visible for every participant and tested to be fully functional prior to the experiment in both rooms. The participants are then allowed into their respective rooms guided by one experimenter. One room hosts five participants; three males and two females while the other room hosts three male participants and one female participant. The experimenters begin by reading all the instructions regarding the experiment to the students to brief them about the experiment. The two groups are tested simultaneously to avoid sharing of information among the participants. Thereafter, the experimenters alert the participants that they are about to display the lists of words on the projector screen so that the participants prepare themselves mentally. One group had the list of abstract words displayed first while the other had the list of concrete words displayed first. Each list of words display was timed for 15 seconds using a stop watch. The participants have the option of writing the words they see on the projector or just memorizing them as they are displayed on the screen. The projector screen is switched off after 15 seconds and the students are given time to go through what they have captured in their papers until they are satisfied. The papers are then collected before the next list of words is displayed. The same procedure is thereafter repeated with the second list. The group that started with the list of abstract words is presented with the list of concrete words and vice versa. The procedures are the same for both groups and timing is done with utmost caution to avoid discrimination. Once both procedures are done, both groups are given standardized debriefings. They are also offered their promised incentives. Results Table 1: Displaying the mean of the amount of words recalled for each condition. Conditions Mean amount of words recalled Standard Deviation (S.D.) Concrete Words (Condition 1) 7.18 1.47 Abstract Words (Condition 2) 5.73 1.10 From the results displayed in table 1 above, it is clearly evident that all participants in both groups recalled more concrete words as compared to abstract words. The results indicate that the mean of concrete words that were recalled by the participants (7.18) was higher than that of abstract words recalled by the same participants (5.73). Moreover, the experiment produced a relatively low standard deviation; an indication of consistency and little spread out of the results (Manning, 2010). Discussion. Allan Paivio’s dual coded theory indicates that it is easy to recall concrete words as compared to abstract words due to the imagery that accompanies concrete words. The theory states that concrete words evoke mental images that increase the ability of the participants to recall. The results from this study support this theory since there is substantially a higher difference which is greater than or equal to 0.01. The study conducted by Paivio & Begg (1969) showed that participants were able to recall more concrete words than abstract words which collaborate with the results of our study. The results also collaborate with the studies conducted by Spiro, Feltovitch and Coulson in the cognitive flexibility theory. The theory states that the process of recalling involves restructuring the contents based on the knowledge acquired through learning. Concrete words evoke images as indicated in the dual coded theory hence they can be reconstructed easily. Abstract words on the other had do not evoke images and cannot be reconstructed easily. It is also evident that contents are not retrieved directly from the memory but are rather restructured to provide meaningful information in the process of recalling contents from human memory. According to John Sweller’s cognitive load theory, human knowledge base is created by a schema that has related memory units. The process of recalling thus involves creating this schema. Concrete words provide meaningful suggestions in the process of reconstruction because they have imagery as suggested by dual code theory. Simple suggestions of this words lead to reconstruction of this schema hence easier recalling process. Abstract words are not suggestive since they do not have images that can aid in the reconstruction process (Manning, 2010). George Millers information processing theory is also essential in the interpretation of the study’s results. As the dual coded theory states, concrete words are accompanied by imagery. The imagery of these concrete words creates chunks of information that are stored in the memory. The imagery in the concrete words can form these chunks instead of storing actual words in the memory. Therefore, the participants were able to recall these chunks and reconstruct them to form actual words. Surprisingly, the theory states that the human brain holds up to nine chunks. The outcomes of this procedure indicate that the number of words recalled were actually less than nine out of the fifteen words presented to the participants. References Balogun, M. J. (2011). Contiguity theory. New York: Springer. Craik, F. I., Benjamin, M., Moscovitch, M., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Perspectives on human memory and cognitive aging: essays in honour of Fergus Craik. New York: Psychology Press. Gog, T. (2010). Cognitive load theory: advances in research on worked examples, animations, and cognitive load measurement. New York: Springer. Leonard, D. C. (2007). Learning theories, A to Z. Westport, Conn.: Oryx Press. Manning, B. A. (2010). Analysis of two mnemonic techniques in learning and recalling abstract and concrete words. New York: Springer. Miller, G. A., & Hirst, W. (2009). The Making of cognitive science: essays in honor of George A. Miller. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Paivio, A. (2007). Mind and its evolution: a dual coding theoretical approach. Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. Spiro, R. J. (2011).Cognitive flexibility theory advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Read More