Psychology of Adulthood - Assignment Example

PSYCHOLOGY INTO ADULTHOOD By of the of the of the School 25 May Erikson’s life stages Characteristics of the life stages Trust vs. Mistrust Occurs in children below the age of 2 years and in infants who are wholly reliant on parental care to meet their basic needs. His/her understanding of the environment is dependent upon the interaction with the parent. If his/her needs are fully met, total trust in the parent develops. If the needs are not met, the infant mistrusts the parent as he/she grows up. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Covers the ages of 2-3 years and is associated with curiosity. The child is explorative and can move on his/her own but with limited freedom. The stage is accompanied by shame and doubt depending on the child’s parental handling. The child can be impulsive in later years if there is no shame and doubt. Conversely, the child may be compulsive due to subjection to too much shame and doubt. Moderation is necessary for the development of self will power. Initiative vs. Guilt Covers the ages of 4-5 years and there is a desire to do useful tasks, hence it is said to be initiative. There is development of ethical judgment leading to the feeling of guilt in case of mistakes. Balancing is hence important to avoid being ruthless due to being over-initiative and to overcome inhibition due to high rise of guilt. This stage marks the development of purpose in the child. Industry vs. Inferiority Covers the ages 6-12 years and a child flourish on learning rules. The child is industrious if the learning rules are conducive. If the rules are punitive the child develops inferiority. There can be a narrow virtuosity if the child is too industrious in one area. In case of too much inferiority, the child can develop inertia. There should be competency to balance between industry and inferiority. Identity vs. Identity confusion Covers the ages 13-18 years, hence marking the transition from childhood to adulthood. The adolescents seek for role models to get ego identity. Their behaviours change as they grow. Identity confusion may occur due to wrong choice of a role model. Adolescent may become fanatic due to too much ego identity while he/she may suffer from repudiation due to identity confusion. The resolution for balance between fanaticism and repudiation is by attaining fidelity. Intimacy vs. Isolation Covers the ages 20-35 years and is marked by merging of opposite genders in unified communication. Mingling with others without losing their identity is easy hence breeds intimacy. Failure to get into any relationship causes isolation which destroys work and love. Intimacy bonds individuals into love. Generative vs. Stagnation This is the period of adult maturity which is for individuals aged 60-75 years old. There is individual contribution to the society. Individual strives to be generative to establish a guide for the generation following. Any failure leads to stagnation in the following generation. There is proper utilization so as to care for the generation after. Ego integrity vs. despair This is the age above 75 years and focuses on continuation of human condition or distraction. Is associated with completeness and disintegration/ defeat. Lack of resolutions in this stage results to despair which cause bitterness and psychological death. The solution in this stage is wisdom to develop new gifts. Cross cultural studies of life stages Efforts have been made on the cross cultural studies to examine Erikson’s psychosocial development stages (Shweder 1998). Researches in America show the importance of ethnicity in development of identity of Black Americans and other American groups (Engler 2013). He asserts that racial and ethnic advancement moves from self-hate to self-healing and to self-concepts that are culturally assertive. Furthermore these changes occur in the worldview, ideologies and value systems instead of self-esteem. Hence, Erikson’s stages of the psychosocial development stages are valid and reliable. Case study A study among the South African men and women from both the whites and blacks determined that these stages are universally applicable (Erikson 2015). The outcome of the study revealed that a positive resolution in each stage enhances the continuity of a positive pattern, hence contentment. Though there were racial differences, the rationale of the study was that the universality of Erikson’s theory is enforceable because of successful application in other countries. Criticisms of Erikson’s theory Erikson’s theory is criticised due to lack of educational gauges leading to ambiguity and inconsistency of ideas. Stating autonomy and initiative as different stages is confusing hence giving overlapping meanings. Fidelity is described as an ideology yet is placed in the adolescent stage. Critics argue it should be in the young adulthood stage where ideologies are prominent as opposed to the teenage years. Erikson’s claims are not epigenesist since they seem to be distorted. For example the study in South Africa showed the occurrence of these stages in succession to one another hence refuting Erikson’s claims. Some researchers have also criticized Erikson’s theory for lack of practical application in solving real life problems. They argue that Erikson has not advocated for any therapy since he majored more on crisis than giving solution. Adolescence is a time of storm and stress Adolescence stage is described as a time of storm and stress due to occurrence of incidences with negative effects arising from intense changes in the lives of adolescents. These changes include physical maturity such as brain development and increase in body mass, need for self-independence, emotional and social changes. McNamara (2000) asserts that the decisions made during adolescent stage are important for the future of occupational and social status. However, these decisions can present irreversible negative consequences in life that is why the stage is called a time of storm and stress for example drug use and substances abuse. Moore and Rosenthal (1993) point out that the adolescence stage comes with conflicts and confusion which arise from the awakening of sexual impulses. This is in line with cognitive/psychological theory which states that development is activated by construction of new ideas rather than rather absorbing the existing knowledge in the environment (Baumgartner 2001). The sexual impulses in adolescents are heightened by increased emotional changes hence the desire for self-test. Because of this, some are tempted to engage in sexual initiation. Adolescents also tend to seek for self-recognition in the society and this desire leads some to participate in dangerous criminal activities. This may be due to peer pressure which land many adolescents into stressful and terrible problems leaving them with inerasable lifelong scars. These are wounds nursed because of irresponsible sexual and peer behaviour hence confirms that adolescence is a time of stress and storms. According to Levesque (2012), describing adolescence as a time of storm and stress means it is a time of turbulence accompanied by intense fluctuating thinking and non-sequential emotional and behavioural changes. Transition from childhood to adolescence is marked by stages of cruelty, lack of moral values, violence, low regard for property and obscenity in children. This portrayed negative side of the adolescence ruins the joy of life in adolescents because they develop opposition. Consequently, they become involved in risk taking because of rebellion which regenerates into emotional disturbances and parental-child conflicts, of which the outcome may be a bloody situation and enmity. The idea of adolescence being a time of storm and stress digs deeper into unravelling the truth about gender, race and socialization (Marshall 1997). Chronological accounts reveal that adolescents regardless of their gender, class or race, are engaged in series of forming separate identities from the families particularly with their parents. This agrees with the behavioural/mechanistic theory which states that development is due to mechanical response to the external forces (Baumgartner 2001). Forming separate identities is a deviation from the morally upright values as they seek to do things that satisfy their ego and self-ambition. For example adolescent girls who break the cultural and moral values are labelled deviants by the society and they are at risk of falling prey to pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases. This ruins and tears their lives apart resulting into emotional trauma and psychological distress as they pay the price of rebellion and opposition. It is observed that adolescence stage is characterized by more tumult, energy, chaos and passion than in other age groups (Grigorenko 2012). There is high tendency of rebellion and resistance to adult authority leading to conflicts. Mood disturbances such as extreme mood swings result into emotional impulsiveness in the adolescents hence recurrent incidences of dejected moods. These result into violence in some adolescents and increase the chances of fights which also present a lot of dangers because of unanticipated outcome. Additionally, adolescence is characterized by recklessness, antisocial behaviour and deviation from the societal. Worse is the case for the adolescent boys who engage in criminal behaviours. This may land them into serving jail terms in prisons or juveniles. Grigorenko (2012) also asserts that there are serious hurting problems in adolescence stage that sometimes go unnoticed and untreated. For example some adolescents are totally lost in drugs, crimes and all manner of evils hence are suffering from depression and psychiatric problems. Statistics show that some succumb to accidents, suicidal incidences and due to homicides. For example the American statistics, reveal the top three major causes of the deaths of 15–19 years olds are accidents, homicides and suicides. These are closely linked to the storms and stresses of adolescence stage. The report further alleges that combined causes of the deaths of 15–19 years olds in most countries is related to road accidents, self-inflicted injuries and violent behaviours (Grigorenko 2012). It is therefore a confirmation that adolescence stage is period of stress and storm because of numerous turmoil. There are further extreme cases of storm and stress in adolescence. Studies suggest that such forms may include delinquency which is associated with mental disorders. It is reported that many of the American incarcerated youths and those on probation exhibit at least one mental problem. This is also confirmed by findings from other countries which reveal high prevalence of mental disorders in juveniles and in other correctional centres. The age brackets are 10–19 years who exhibit negative behaviours landing them into harsh environments. High rise of terrorism is an effect of negative influence in adolescence stage. Many youths are being recruited into terrorist groups with the promise of getting lump sum of monies. This is a storm and stressful adolescent life situation that ruins young brilliant and promising lives. Therefore comprehensive measures should be adopted to prevent prevalence of adolescents plunging into deadly traps that leave them with lifelong scars. Divorce Divorce is a devastating experience that is difficult to cope with in life (Vergos 2010). There is a report of a person whose entire life was destroyed due to inability to overcome the effects of divorce. The mental anguish, bitterness and soul pain due to nursing wounds made her fail to attain happiness. Effects of divorce are damaging and the turmoil is long lasting (Siegel 2016). It took her time to overcome anger, frustration, insecurity and fears that resulted from divorce. It suggested that negative experiences can be turned into positive results but she was unable to. Psychologists assert that emotional impacts resulting from stressful experiences of divorce are comparable to the loss of a loved one (Papps 2012). Fine and Harvey (2006) say that many writers have tried to invent theories on the effects of divorce on the psychological well-being of a person. The researchers have therefore presented a divorce-stress-adjustment model. The argument here is that divorce and adjustment is intermediated by the presence of stressors which include single parenting responsibility, no emotional support, and enduring conflict with the ex-spouse. The divorce-stress related events like economic decline took toll on her before she could not adjust. It is argued that adjustment is curbed by individual, interpersonal and structural resources but is short lived. The researchers have also advocated for divorce-as-chronic-strain model where effects are long term. Failure to adjust to life after divorce weighed her down because of the long existence of opposing feelings. The effects of divorce are very huge and detrimental to the psychological well-being of victims involved therefore should never be advocated for because as it tears the lives as well as the society as a whole. References Baumgartner, L. M., 2001. Four Adult Development Theories and their Implications for Practice. [online] Available at: [Accessed 26 May 2015]. Clack, C. M. and Caffarell, S., 2013. Update on Adult Development: New Ways of Thinking About the Life Course. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Engler, B., 2014. Personality Theories, 9th Ed. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Erikson, E., 2015. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory. [online] Available at: [Accessed 26 May 2015]. Fine, M. A. and Harvey, J. H., Ed., 2006. Handbook of Divorce and Relationship Dissolution. New York: Routledge. Grigorenko, E. L., 2012. Handbook of Juvenile Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry. New York: Springer. Levesque, R. J. R., 2012. Encyclopaedia of Adolescence Vol.! A-C. New York: Springer. Marshall, C., Ed., 1997. Feminist Critical Policy Analysis 1: A Perspective from Primary and Secondary Schooling. London: Falmer Press. McNamara, S., 2000. Stress in Young People: What’s New and What Can We Do? London: Continuum. Moore, S. and Rosenthal, D., 1993. Sexuality in Adolescence. London: Routledge. Papps, T. G., 2012. The Eight Reasons for Divorce: Why Marriages Fail and How to Ensure That Yours Doesn’t. Wilkes-Barre, Pa: Kallisti Publishing. Shweder, R. A., 1998. Welcome To Middle Age! (And Other Cultural Functions). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Siegel, L., 2016. Criminology: Theories, Patterns, and Typologies. Boston: Cengage Learning. Read More