Attachment Effects of Maternal Depression and the Relationships with Their Child - Essay Example

[poem/song etc re. maternal depression: read it out, have a picture on ohp] Hi, my is My topic reviews research on attachment effects of maternal depression and the relationships with their child. I have taken a developmental approach to the topic, as it incorporates the bio-psycho-social model. First I will outline what major depression is, and then focus on its etiology for maternal depression. Second, I will review pertinent theories and studies of attachment and its classifications. Next, I will detail the socio-emotional development of a child (Purrl), whose mum experiences depression. Finally I will present support and treatment recommendations for both mother and child, as well as other family members. I will then field questions and discuss details further. It is anticipated that this presentation shall extend your awareness of an important social issue. As community service providers it is our duty to explore and understand issues of adult and child unhappiness. Major depression causes a person to feel deep unhappiness. When a person experiences depression they may also feel bored and un-motivated, downgraded, self-depreciating and demoralized (Santrock, 2004). Major depression is serious mental distress, and for a family, one person experiencing depression can affect the entire household. One research focus has been into the attachment effects of maternal emotional states on child relationships. Maternal depression may be due to changes in hormone or neurotransmitters levels, other physiological changes, partner discord, loneliness, or unwanted pregnancy, to name a few (Herring & Kaslow, 2002). It has been observed a child of a mum experiencing depression is more likely to experience social, emotional and learning difficulties. Attachment is the emotional bond that grows between the child and caregiver (Bowlby, 1968/1982). Attachment processes facilitate a child in future relationship building. Often in western societies the mother is the primary caregiver. John Bowlby (1969/1982) developed a theory about a child's relationship with its mother that was paradigmatic shift in how familial relationships were viewed. After reading Lorenz's (1935) paper on imprinting, Bowlby had empirical support for rejecting Freud's reason of sensuous oral fixation. The mother-infant bond was more than oral gratification and mother love. He used concepts form ethnology to investigate and explain child-mother relationships. Spitz (1962) and Erikson (1960) encouraged Bowlby to explore the idea of critical periods in a child's psychological development (cited in Bowlby, 1969/1982). Especially, he focused on a critical period for bonding to occur, and initiated studies into mother-child separation. He also incorporated theories of Fabian (1952) and Winnicott (1965) of object relations, and so emphasized interpersonal relationships, particularly within the family (cited in bowlby, 1969/1982). Bowlby believed he could help children, through helping their parents. Bowlby suggested that the newborn has a set of instinctual responses (suckling, holding, following) that it uses to form bonds with the mother. These interactions develop significantly at around 6 months of age. Bowlby considered the child's behaviors of following and holding as more important than suckling and crying in forming attachment relationships with the mother. Bowlby concluded that a healthy adult required an infancy of warm, intimate and continuous relationships that brings satisfaction to them both. Mary Ainsworth (1968) supported Bowlby's ethnological approach to the development of attachment relationships with a primary caregiver. She also drew on Blatz's (1940) security theory that rejected Freud's theories. Security theory holds that young infants must develop a secure attachment to parents in order to explore the world confidently, to leave a solid base (cited in Aisnworth, 1968). Ainwsorth and her colleagues developed the "Strange Situation" (1971), a method that was able to test Bowlby's theory of attachment. She took one year olds, through a series of introductions, separations and reunions with their caregiver and a stranger. Ainsworth's systematic separation of infant and mother evaluated their attachment relationship. Also, longitudinal home visits allowed observation of mother's behavior and influences on their child's psychological development (Gurain, 2003). Ainsworth contributed to extension of attachment theory, and has initiated a vast amount of research studies. Research with Bowlby, supporting an ethological approach Ainsworth, Bell and Styton (1971) classified attachment relationships into two main groups: 1. A "secure attachment" was evident of children who had positive caregiver-infant experiences. The caregiver is a secure base from which the child can confidently explore the world. The child moves freely but occasionally glances back to see where the caregiver is. This category reflects Erikson's (1958) period of trust development. When the caregiver departs the child usually only protests mildly, on return of mum positive interactions resume (smiling, holding, exploring). 2. An "insecure attachment" is due to negative caregiver-infant experiences. The child is dependent, untrusting and emotionally distant. They also tend to be irritable and aggressive. Erikson would say the child has developed mistrust of others. An insecure child may be avoidant, resistant or disorganized. And so avoid the caregiver, cling to and then push away from them, or appear afraid or confused of them, respectively. Avoidant and resistant children will cry loudly and be distressed when the caregiver leaves. Strongly avoidant or resistant children are classified as disorganized. [figures of ainsworth theory: http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/rcfraley/fig2.jpg http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/rcfraley/fig1.jpg ref: Cyre et al)] Hence, patterns of attachment are affected by caregiver behaviors. So that maternal depression may affect the way a mother responds to her child. As noted, an inconsistency in the fulfillment of needs, attention and interaction for the child develops an "insecure attachment". Holding gently, rocking, smiling, touching, tending to food, drink, toiletry and safety needs, develops a secure and happy child (Cyre et at, 2004). Confident and independent, a child who has a secure attachment feels safe and secure, and is able to extend this relationship pattern to others in later life, forming healthy trusting bonds. I will now introduce you to Purrl, whose mother has experienced depression since before her daughter's birth. The impact of stress during the prenatal period can be a key factor in later child development (Santrock, 2004). Purrl's mum was depressed for most of her pregnancy as she had not wanted to be pregnant and could no longer work as a dancer. Without the support of family members, Purrl's mum was not coping with day-to-day difficulties, and she had begun thinking more and more about her poor relationship with her own mum. Plus she was losing her toned, sensual figure. The changes in psychological functioning for Purrl's mum would have changed her patterns of breathing and hormone secretions, and so it is likely that Purrl would have been an active fetus (Gurian, 2003). Hence, Purrl's mum probably did not enjoy her pregnancy. The state of mind of the mother influences the birth process, and mental distress can cause irregular contractions, and or a difficult and extended labor. A decrease in the oxygen supply to the birthing child can lead to subsequent emotional and learning difficulties (Gurian, 2003). In turn, the child's temperament can be impacted on negatively by a difficult birth. Purrl was premature (6 weeks), and was an irritable baby. Purrl's mother experienced postnatal depression, and was unable to breastfeed or to bottle-feed her daughter. Studies show that as young as three months a child can be aware that its mother (Herring & Kaslow, 2002). Mother's experiencing depression behaves significantly differently to mothers not experiencing depression (Gurian, 2003). Babies who have difficulties interacting with their mum, tend to develop insecure attachments, and fail to thrive. As an infant it was evident that Purrl had learning and emotional difficulties, and lacked the social skills of other babies (didn't cry much, try to make eye contact, irritable). Attachment Disorder is the mental and emotional detachment of a child during the first three years of their life. It is the critical period for bonding. If the child does not bond to the caregiver, they develop an insecure attachment, and fail to trust in later relationships (Gurian, 2003). Psychological development is dependant on bonds forming with other humans; we are social creatures (Bowlby, 1969/1982). As a toddler, Purrl often felt less confident than her peers appeared to be. She was not a confident child and was much less independent than her peers. However, her mum did not take her to kindergarten or to playgroup because of a lack of motivation to take her daughter. Her mum had been prescribed a new anti-depressant that made her vague and limited her ability to show affection. She barely spoke to her daughter. Purrl was confused, frightened and hurt by her mum's behavioral changes and lack of affection. When Purrl was around other toddlers, she would withdraw and avoid interaction. Problems with interrelationships, as well as intra-relationships during infancy, directly effect later childhood and adulthood relationship patterns (Ainsworth, 1968; Cyre et al., 2004). When school started Purrl continued to feel confused by her mum's behavior, and often felt forgotten about, or that she was to blame for her mum's unhappiness. She spent a lot of her time alone trying to work out what was going on. In grade 4, Purrl started to take on more of the caregiver role around the house. She had made a friend, Bast, at school, and sometimes played or stayed over at her house. Bast's mum showed her how to use a computer and email, and let her help with cooking and cleaning the house and yard. Purrl adopted some of these behaviors at home, even though her mum seemed not to notice much. Purrl continued these new behaviors because she now felt she had some control over her life, and didn't feel so powerless anymore. She could see the changes she made to the home. Bast introduced Purrl to tennis, and they played twice a week. Bast always made an effort to complete her homework, and so Purrl found her grades getting better as she studied with Bast. However, Bast rarely came over to Purrl's house, she could see that Purrl was embarrassed about her mum's behavior. Purrl continued to be a temperamental child, and despite her friendship with Bast, often found herself at odds with authority, at school, and with the police. When she felt angry Purrl was unable to ask for help from others, she pushed people away physically and emotionally because she did not trust them to be there for her. But, at the same time, she yearned to share her feelings, to be heard and cared for. Occasionally, Purrl would have violent outbursts when frustrated. Bast's mum encouraged Purrl to cultivate self-discipline and control through her sport, school work and computer hobbies. An insecure child is most likely to find that their schoolwork drops off as they are unmotivated by their circumstances (Gurian, 2003). Perhaps they are modeling the behavior of their mum, as the child is often bored and demoralized (Herring & Kaslow, 2002). The discipline of assessments and learning goals set by school may be too stringent for children of an insecure attachment, as they tend to rebel against authority. There are often disciplinary issues, learning difficulties, increased incidence of ADHD, and the increased risk of later psychological distress, such as depression or anxiety (Gurian, 2003). As an adolescent Purrl was at a heightened risk of developing major depression, as well as anxiety disorder, substance abuse, or learning difficulties (Santrock, 2004). However, she found cyberspace to be a way of enhancing her social skill repertoire, whilst allowing her to maintain distance in her relationships, which she was comfortable with at this time. Whenever she found herself becoming depressed she would immerse herself in a virtual game world for an hour or three, and then head outdoors to play a game of tennis. The sport allowed her interaction with people to be for only a short time, and this suited her fine. Now, as a young adult, Purrl continues to play virtual games and tennis. She has come to understand that her mother's circumstances are not her fault, and that she can exert control on her environment and is not powerless in determining how she feels. She has had difficulty with romantic relationships, but is confident she will resolve these with time. For now she enjoys being young, single and happy (mostly), and is preparing herself for a career in computer game modeling. It is evident that children of a mum experiencing depression need honest information about what is going on, and why (Gurain, 2003). Importantly, they must be made aware that they are not to blame. Also, the mother must be provided with support both from the family and the community. However, the support must be oriented to fostering self-help strategies that the mother can use during times of distress (Cyre et al, 2004). Children can be encouraged to share in providing support to mum, and to participate in decision-making processes of the household. Medical treatment might be necessary, although other options include family therapy, CBT and personal counseling (Herring & Kaslow, 2002). Importantly, the child should be constantly aware that they are cared for, safe and trusted; that they are very much loved (Gurian, 2003; Herring & Kaslow, 2002). Children and adults can learn to accept the inconsistencies of life when aware that they have more control over their environment than previously understood. An insecure attachment does not have to have to determine one's life course. In conclusion, attachment theory in contemporary climes incorporates a multidisciplinary approach of ethnology and developmental psychology. It is important that community service workers gain understanding into the underlying processes of attachment relationships so that they can more adequately provide support and intervention to children and adults in difficulty. References Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1968), Object relations, dependency, and attachment: A theoretical review of the infant mother relationship. Child Development, 40, 969-1025. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. (1971). Individual differences in Strange Situation behavior of one-year-olds. In H. R. Schaffer (Ed,), The Origins of Human Social Relations (pp. 17-57). London: Academic Press. Blatz, W. (1940), Hostages to Peace: Parents and the Children of Democracy. New York: Morrow. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Cyre, E., Moss, M., Dubois-Comtois, T. (2004) Security of attachment and mother's integration of attachment experiences: The mediating role of mother-child discourse. Proceedings from the biennial meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development. Ghent, Belgium. Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. London: Faber & Faber. Gurian, A. (2003). Mother-blues, child-blues: How maternal depression affects children. Child Study Centre Newsletter, 7(3), 1-5. Herring, M. & Kaslow, N. J. (2002). Depression and attachment in families: A child-focused perspective. Family Process, 41, 494-518. Santrock, J. W. (2004). Life-Span Development (9th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. Read More