Child and Adolescent Development - Essay Example

Running head: Child and Adolescent Development Child and Adolescent Development Introduction An important search in the developmental sciences is the specification of fundamental and appropriate early experiences which typically result to the human development among children and adults. This paper will look into the development of children aged 2 to 5 years old as well adolescents aged 11 to 14 years old, examining the differences between normal and abnormal development. Specifically, overall development will be examined based on their cognitive, physical, and psychosocial development. Children typically develop skills in a number of developmental areas; for instance, cognitive development is characterized by the child’s ability for learning and problem solving whereas psychosocial development, which also refers to social and emotional development, refers to the ability of the child in relation to establishing interaction with others (Slobodskaya and Akhmetova, 2010). Development of speech and language abilities with which the child is able to use and understand language is of great importance as well. The use of small and large muscles, known as the development of motor skills, also plays an important function in overall development. Such areas will then be examined among children of the mentioned age groups along with the impact of such areas on their overall development. Psychosocial Development Majority of developmental theories highlight the significance of early experiences that influence social and emotional aspects of development along with the opportunity to experience and develop human relationships; this way, normal mental and social development can be obtained. For example, the attachment theory of Bowlby (1958) asserts the need for early experience to be integrated with concern and warmth from adults, such as family members, who are socially and emotionally responsive. This will then help establish a strong foundation for a child’s mental health and development of social and emotional aspects (Sroufe, Carlson, Levy and Egeland, 1999). Theoretically, toddlers who have had favorable experiences with a caregiver who provides warmth and is quick to respond to their needs will develop expectations of support and nurture from such caregiver. The child then establishes trust towards the caregiver and uses the later as basis for discovering the physical as well as social environment. These experiences, consequently, foster the development of one’s sense of worth and confidence. On the whole, mutual social exchange (Posada, 2002), positive attitudes, and responsiveness (Landry, Smith, and Swank, 2006) all play relevant functions in during the early psychosocial development of children. As the child obtains control over their abilities, they explore their environment while their parents remain as their base of security. Children aged 2 years and above also begin to develop their interests, such as enjoying music or taking interest in plants and animals, as well as satisfying certain needs, such as feeding and dressing themselves. The normal and favorable development of children at the age of 2 to 5 years old can be encouraged if parents and caregivers foster a self-sufficient behavior with which these children can establish a sense of independence, handling a number of concerns on their own (Sroufe, Egeland, and Kreutzer, 1990). However, their psychosocial development can be adversely affected if caregivers have many demands, do not allow children to carry out tasks that they are capable to perform, or deride their attempts for self-autonomy. As such, children at such age may become introverted and doubtful towards their ability to deal with problems. Atypical psychosocial development is often evident in children who do not have experience with adults who are socially and emotionally responsive. A wide range of studies have looked into the effects of insecure attachment on problem behaviors. Children and adolescents who continually experience unresponsive or insensitive child care or parenting have been linked to mental, emotional, and social problems (Crittenden, 2001). For example, children aged 3 to 5 years old who live in substandard orphanages experienced delays in their behavioral development, particularly in their mental and social aspects (Kaler and Freeman, 1994). For instance, these children were shown to demonstrate various abnormal behaviors, including early passivity that shifts into aggressive behavior, reduced ability to establish genuine relationships, inclination to develop random friendliness, and difficulty in creating favorable peer relationships. In adolescents aged 12 to 14 years old, their psychosocial development has been associated with their role and identity with which these individuals consider the roles that they will eventually play in the actual world. They are now more concerned as to how other people will think of them, thereby having mixed feelings as to how they can appropriately belong in the society. In this stage, adolescents develop their ability seek one’s personal intentions as well as the intentions of other people. Their psychosocial development is now influenced by their awareness of the roles which can be offered for them in the future. Therefore, they are expect to exhibit behaviors that allow them to obtain a sense of identity as to who they really are and how they will lead their lives in the future, from being affiliated with political and religious associations to joining various clubs that may foster their interests. Aside from identity development, normal psychosocial development can involve adolescents’ independence, thereby reducing their emotional dependence on parents, as well as making their own decisions and experiencing certain relationship changes (Choudhury, Blakemore, and Charman, 2006). They will also express sexual feelings and take pleasure with physical contact with others. Moreover, achieving success as capable members of the society is of great importance as well. However, certain adolescents may experience difficulties in their psychosocial development especially when other aspects are involved. For instance, the study of Huurre and Aro (1997) that was carried out among adolescents (mean age=14 years old) with visual impairments indicated that their psychosocial development was adversely affected. Adolescents who had visual impairments typically had fewer friends and were reported to have more feelings of loneliness along with the difficulty of developing relationships. Social skills, self-esteem, and accomplishments at school were evidently lower among girls with visual impairments. On the whole, the study’s findings pointed out that there is a need to provide support for the psychosocial development of adolescents who have difficulties in other aspects, such as those with visual impairments. Cognitive Development Aside from psychosocial development, the cognitive development of children and adolescents are also of equal importance for their overall development. Cognitive abilities allow an individual to process the information that he/she collects, including the ability to evaluate, retain, recall, compare, and decide on an action. Although many cognitive skills are inherent, majority of these are learned in the process. Such intellectual growth is experienced from birth until childhood (Fowler, Gleitman, and Gelman, 1981) with which the learning systems and structures within the brain are developed. When normal development does not occur, this can lead to cognitive weaknesses that can consequently reduce the person’s capacity for learning and may experience difficulty in correcting his actions especially when no appropriate interventions are provided. According to Piaget, it is essential that children and adolescents should achieve a sense of equilibration with which they achieve a balance between their application of previous knowledge and their changing behaviors to accommodate new knowledge (Evans et al., 2010). Between ages 2 and 4 years old, children begin to develop shame and guilt and, as they develop their cognitive abilities, there is an increase in their ability to consider consequences in relation to their own interests as well as the interests of others who surround them. Moreover, during this period of early childhood, intelligence can be exhibited by means of language use, symbols, imagination, and memory although thinking can be carried out in a non-logical approach (Michael, 2003). In the early stages of adolescence (11 to 14 years old), there is a considerable change regarding their cognitive development. During such phase, their cognitive abilities can be characterized by concrete thinking, impulsive behavior, and having the highest regard for one’s self whereas the ability for abstract reasoning has not been completely developed yet in these young individuals (Kuhn, 2006). Moreover, young adolescents may also have inadequate skills in solving their problems and overcoming obstructions to changes in their behavior; they may also be unable to recognize how present behavior can influence their future lives. In studies conducted among autistic children, their responses to sensory stimuli are abnormal, hence their difficulties in combining various kinds of information and instigating their behavioral responses. Children aged 3 to 5 years old who have autism can be expected to have less inclination towards examining objects within unstructured settings. While they demonstrate their ability to be involved in different play activities, their play is less complex and varied compared to those of other children. Consequently, such manifestations can lead to difficulties regarding the planning and organization of information; moreover, social imitation is limited as well. According to epidemiological studies, in measuring intelligence, 70% of children who have autism have been indicated as experiencing mental retardation, hence the need for more effective interventions. Among adolescents aged 13 and 14 years old, individuals who underwent atypical cognitive development were associated with depression. For instance, depressed teens have been linked to reduced cognitive abilities; for instance, adolescents that have been experiencing depression demonstrated slightly low levels of concept/knowledge acquisition (Kovacs and Goldstone, 2001). Physical Development Development of physical skills is of paramount importance for the overall development of individuals, hence the need for time, effort and practice for continual growth. More enhanced and precise physical skills are evident when a child reaches 2 years and older with which motor skills and coordination are improved, such as walking, running, climbing, and pulling up. Movements caused by small and large muscles are practiced as well whereas upper body mobility (e.g. catching, throwing) is exhibited. Physical development will have a slight difference between boys and girls; for instance, males will develop their muscles whereas females may add fat during this phase. Height increase will also be more evident among girls than among boys; nonetheless, both genders are expected to grow 2 to 3 inches per year. However, it has been a difficulty to identify children with abnormal physical development. While certain children can be easily recognized for being at risk for physical impairments, clinical manifestations cover a wide range. There are a considerable number of genetic, external, and clinical factors that may hamper physical development in children; for example, deficient growth hormone product has been linked to impaired physical development, such as a decreased final height or slow bone and teeth development. Other body parts may also be unable to grow and reach potential development. Motor impairment that is non-progressive, specifically, is a form of abnormal physical development that is evident among young children with cerebral palsy, with which the central nervous system is affected, hence obvious motor impairments (Carter, Neville, and Newton, 2003). In the study of McCauley et al. (2001), a genetic condition called Turner syndrome that affects physical development has been linked to reduced cognitive and psychosocial development, such as mental retardation, poor concentration, and difficulties in developing peer relationships. It was then suggested that atypical physical development can have a strong influence on social and behavioral difficulties. Effects of Cognitive, Physical and Psychosocial Development The integration of an individual’s cognitive, physical, and psychosocial development plays an important role in his overall development. For example, a child’s early skills and abilities to manage his social and emotional concerns can significantly influence his attitudes and behaviors in the future. While young children aged 2 to 5 years old experience a growing independence with which they are able to make choices regarding the activities they will pursue, the development of such courage and autonomy can prepare them for their possible response towards difficulties they will experience years after. When he begins to take initiative, this will also serve as a preparation for handling the challenges of planning, leadership, and accomplishment of goals. Therefore, the support that children and adolescents receive with their efforts in planning and performing activities will assist them in making realistic and proper choices that will affect their overall development. Furthermore, children are expected to demonstrate various behaviors that adhere to their beliefs about themselves or their expectations in the future. To promote positive beliefs among young individuals can have a positive influence on their overall likelihood to succeed. In their psychosocial development, children and adolescents also develop their self-perceptions that will play an important function in their patterns of behavior, social relationships, and their overall development. Ensuring positive ideals and beliefs in relation to their self-perceptions can help further develop an individual’s cognitive development, thus more encouraging outcomes in the future. Physical development has also been shown to strongly impact the individual’s psychosocial and cognitive skills with which it can negatively influence the emergence of fundamental thinking skills or establishment of relationships with peers and family members, and the society as a whole, affecting overall development. The importance of proper nurturing and support for a young individual’s physical growth is highlighted as well. On the whole, development in physical coordination, concept formation, learning and usage of language, developing positive perceptions of one and of others can be an effective means of preparing children and adolescents to bring about new abilities necessary to meet the next stages of development. References Carter, J.A., Neville, B.G., and Newton, C.R. (2003). Neuro-cognitive impairment following acquired central nervous system infections in childhood. Brain Research Reviews, 43 (1), 57-69. Choudhury, S., Blakemore, S.J., and Charman, T. (2006). Social cognitive development during adolescence. Social Cognitive & Affective Neuroscience, 1 (3), 165-174. Crittenden, A. (2001). The price of motherhood: why the most important job in the world is still the least valued. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Evans, G., Ricciuti, H., Hope, S., Schoon, I., Bradley, R., Corwyn, R.m and Hazan, C. (2010). 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