Human Development as One of the Branches of Psychology - Research Paper Example

Human Development Introduction Human development is one of the branches of psychology that focuses on understanding the different developmental stages throughout the life span. It has been called the developmental psychology and it is an important field of study because it helps explain the changes that occur during different staged of development. It focuses on the period between conception and death. Psychologists having an interest in the field have been exerting efforts to have a clear picture of stages involved in the life span of an individual throughout growth until the death point, however, special focus is given to certain segments of the life span such as childhood, adulthood or old age. This paper will provide the basic concepts in the understanding ofthe behaviors exhibited by people in their different stages of growth as well as a deep perception on the existing theories that have been developed by different psychological theorists on three critical aspects of human development, namely, cognitive, physical and emotional-social. Theories of human development Theories organize hypothesis, data and ideas by expressing them in a coherent and interrelated principles or laws. Human development theories are such an imperative tool mostly used for different modifications and teaching techniques. This paper will describe three of the many allegories that explain the behaviorism in human development, namely, Bandura’s social, cognitive and learning theory, Fraud’s Psychoanalytical theory and the Vygotsky’s socialcultural theory (Louw et al, 2004). Bandura’s Social Cognitive and Learning Theory Bandura’s suggestions on the social, cognitive and learning theory are based on the fact that learning is achieved through observations, emotional reactions and the behaviors of others. He further exemplifies that learning would be tedious and not fully effective if it was based on personal behaviors. Therefore, the basic argument in Bandura’s theory is that, human behavior is learned through the observation of other’s behaviors, which that acts as a guiding principle for ones actions (Louw et al, 2004). Bandura further in this theory explains that, even though people learn by observing the behaviors of others, it’s a natural factor for human beings to create their own environment in the learning process. An example for his explanation can be traced from my brother’s (Steve, 3 years old) behavior,who opted to childish behaviors since the birth of our youngest brother (Tom, a 1 year old). Steve gets jealous when mum gives Tom more attention whenever he cries. Therefore, when Steve wants attention from mum, he cries like a child. Bandura in this case defines such a behavior as vicarious reinforcement, a situation where someone sees another individual getting a reward from acting in some certain manner, therefore they start acting in the same ways for the same favors as well (Louw et al, 2004). Vygotsky’s Social, Cultural Theory Vygotsky, in his socialcultural theory describes learning process as a social entity and that the human intelligence originates and is dependent upon the society or the culture from which one comes from. The most imperative aspect of Vigotsky’s allegorical framework is that social interaction plays an important role in the human development of cognition (Thies & Travers, 2001). Vygotsky believed that, learning is achieved through two processes, that is, through interaction and that the potential for ones intellectual development is dependent upon the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky argued that learning in the growth of a human being develops twice in his/her entire life, that is, on the social level and later on an individual level. This aspect is exemplified in the fact that, environmental factors play a major role in the development of a child. When the child grows to maturity, learning becomes intrapsychological, meaning from within oneself. The zone of proximal development refers to the area in the brain of an individual that is prepared to learn, and requires external factors for it to develop, for example, parents, teachers or friends to help in the development of complex skills. This calls for collaborative learning that supports the intellectual process and thus facilitates the intentional learning (Thies & Travers, 2001). Fraud’s Psychoanalytical theory This theory was developed by Freud and it draws attention to the fact that the human personality is composed of three elements, namely, the id, the ego and the superego. The id refers to the instinctual or personal urges that an individual aim at achieving or satisfying at the time of birth. These kinds of urges call for immediate satisfaction regardless of the consequences. Fraud’s aspect of ego, refers to the feeling of pride that develops when an individual gets in one year of growth. This refers to the cognitive part that seeks to satisfy the id. The super ego on the other hand develops as one grows (Thies & Travers, 2001). The super ego stage is influenced by the parental guidelines and the social environments as well as the teachings. Freud further argues that, that ego and the id are always conflicting and an individual is influenced by the parental guidelines and the society to maintain such an ego at a balance. Freud refers to the unconscious strategies for maintaining a balance of the ego and id so as to ease disturbance as the personal defense mechanisms. Some of the defensive mechanisms used by individuals as they grow according to Fraud include repression, regression, sublimation, displacement, reaction formation and denial. Freud therefore describes suppression as the act of suppressing some personal aspect into the unconscious mind, thereby causing pressure and conflict within oneself. Suppression according to Fraud defines one’s character. In addition, he describes regression as the act of exhibiting ones childish behavior when they are confronted with anxiety (Thies & Travers, 2001). The society, according to Freud defines one character whereby, an individual replaces the distressful and unacceptable behaviors with acceptable characteristic. This aspect is referred to as sublimation according to Freud. Freud’s Psychoanalytical theory vividly describes the human character of venting emotional frustrations to other individuals, an aspect that Freud describes as displacement. The final aspect of human character according to Fraud is the element of self denial (Thies & Travers, 2001). It describes a situation whereby an individual protects one’s anxiety by refuting any form of acknowledgement that a certain situation does exist. The Major Domains of Human Development One of the major domains of human development is the physical development which is defined by changes that become evident in height and weight, an in depth understanding of physical development also denotes the changes exhibited in different organs such as the heart, the brain, the skeletal muscles, the neurological system and other systems. These changes usually begin after conception and continue throughout different stages of human development. Notably, physical changes are rigorous in the earlier stages of life and usually climax during puberty whereby adolescents attain physical maturity (Louw et al, 2004). On the other hand is the cognitive development which denoted is the range of changes that take place in mental activities increasing the mental capacity. Cognitive development also involves language development, perception, reasoning, thought and memory. Although cognitive developments begin in the earlier stages of life, it continues throughout the life span. Depending on the factors that define an individual’s life, cognitive development may vary in different individuals. This means that, some individuals may be able to handle hypothetical situations in their early adulthood while others may only attain such maturity in late adulthood (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). The other critical domain of the human development is the emotional-social development which seeks to understand the changes surrounding one’s personality, relationship with others as well as the emotions (Louw et al, 2004). Emotional-social development begins in the early stages of life, but the adolescent stage may present a redefinition of all the social concepts and individual had in childhood. The society that one grows in is a critical determinant of the social development as individuals seek to conform to the existing social values. The psychologist Erik Erikson described eight developmental stages that defined the growth of any individual from birth to adulthood. Each of this stage has a defining psychological crisis the successful resolution of each crisis in the different developmental stages determines the movement to the next stage (Louw et al, 2004). Notably, failure to address each of the crises leads to advanced problems in later stages of life. The first stage defined by Erikson is infancy and it ranges from 0-1 year. During this stage, an infant requires the provision of food, affection and warmth from the immediate caregivers such as parents (Louw et al, 2004). If an infant receives such, then a level of trust is built. In cases whereby caregivers do not fulfill the needs of the infant, mistrust develops and the infant may exhibit mistrust toward individuals in the later stages of life. The second stage is from the age of 1-2 years denoted as the toddler stage. During this stage, a toddler needs to develop a level of independence exhibited by the levels to walk, develop speech and do several things on their own (Thies & Travers, 2001). The crisis at this stage is autonomy versus shame. If the people in a toddler’s life offer the relevant emotional support, and give the toddler reassurance in cases of mistakes, then self confidence develops. On the other hand, disapproving a child’s effort towards independence results to shame and doubt (Carducci, 2006). The third stage is the early childhood from the age of 2-6 years. During this stage, children exhibit increased motor skills as well as other aspects of physical growth coupled with social skills. Adventure is a common feature in the priorities of such children, but parent must ensure they impart the right kind of discipline so that children may learn how to be responsible. Consistency in discipline will prepare children accept their mistakes without guilt. Moreover, parents should encourage children to use their imagination and take initiatives in life while making them aware of the boundaries between what is allowed and what is not (Thies & Travers, 2001). The fourth stage is elementary and middle school years, which usually occur at the age of 6-12 years. School activities define the main focus of children at this stage. Children develop different intellectual capacities as well as the spirit of competence. Lack of competence may plurge such children into the feeling of inferiority. The fifth stage is the adolescent which occurs at the age of 12-18 years. This stage is defined by rigorous physical changes as well as secondary sexual characteristics that define men and women. The onset of adolescence is marked by such changes. However, there is an existing complexity of identity in adolescents (Carducci, 2006). Most of the adolescents struggle with defining their self identity. This is a critical stage in the life of any individual because anyone who presents maladaptive behavior is likely to face future crises. Adolescents who do not develop a clear identity in this stage exhibit a high level of confusion and lack the capacity to make decisions about careers, life’s purpose and even sex orientations (Shaffer, 2009). The sixth stage described by Erikson is young adulthood, which is from the age of 19-40 years. Love relationships from the center of this stage. Despite any success in a career or other aspects of life, the incapability to achieve intimacy in this stage signifies that an individual is not developmentally mature. The successful development of identity in adolescents is a determining factor for young adults to overcome the fear of commitments and therefore be able to form stable relationships. Individuals who lack a strong sense of identity often prefer to isolate themselves and exhibit immense fear of commitment. The seventh stage is the middle adulthood, which occurs at the age of 40-65 years of age. During this stage, adults exhibit their capacity to demonstrate care for others especially their children. This aspect has been described as generativity because adults exhibit the desire to attend to the needs of others and develop a legacy. Individuals who do not achieve generativity often have a self centered point of view and their life seems to stagnate. On the other hand, caring for others, especially children ensure that an individual contributes to the success of the future generation (Shaffer, 2009). The final stage has been described as late adulthood, which occurs at the age of 65 to death. During this stage, an individual focus on a reflection of all life’s achievements and experiences a feeling of, satisfaction, contentment or disappointment. If one feels that they have not achieved as much, they may exhibit the fear of death leading to despair. However, if this stage is defined by a sense of life’s fulfillment, the individual anticipates and accepts death with a high sense of integrity (Carducci, 2006). Key People and Events that Influenced Personal Development from Childhood through the Present (young adulthood) I distinctly remember the day that my mother came home from my school’s parent’s meeting after it had been said that I lacked focus in class, lazy, did not do my homework and that I never cared about anything in the class. My parents were very upset, and my father being a strict man in general, especially when it concerns his children’s health and education was very furious. They were both shocked because I had always been a good student and a performer in class. My father was very agitated and often called me into his bedroom and questioned me over and over again about my grades though I never said a thing out of fear. He then shouted at me and refused to talk to me for an entire day (Shaffer, 2009). I felt betrayed by my teacher because she assumed that I was lazy and never cared anymore. The fact that the teacher never talked to me personally in a bid to find out what the problem was, or even try to help was really frustrating. My father failed me, considering that I personally told him that I had a problem with sight and that I needed spectacles, but he claimed that I was too young for glasses and that I should sit closer to the board or ask the teacher for help. After this experience, I became afraid of communicating my predicaments. I could not write or read because I was worried aboutmaking mistakes out of ignorance. I became embarrassed, an introvert and always had the fear that the people around me viewed me as a loser. My father’s reaction to my situation was not clear to me at the moment. When I grew up and studied psychology as well as talking with my family members about my father’s history, I came to my understanding that it was his own childhood experience that led him to react the way he did (Shaffer, 2009). When he was young, he was outside playing football when another child threw a rock and hit my father’s eye. The injury was very severe since his eye was seriously bruised. My grandfather took him to the hospital, but at that time there were no specialized hospitals, only traditional medicine. My grandfather then ended up taking him to an old man, a self proclaimed specialist. My grandfather was then advised that, the only remedy was to remove the eye, which must have been very painful and the psychological disorder of losing sight must have been very tormenting. This was one reason why my father grew up a disillusioned man. For example, when my family would go out on vacation by car, he would call over and over just to ascertain that everyone was safe because he was afraid of losing his family by accident (Shaffer, 2009). He ever worries over his health as well as what the future has in store for him. His greatest worries are over losing the other eye because, if something happens to it, he would become completely blind. This experience has affected his entire lifestyle, even the way he brought up his children. I now have a clear understanding of his experience and the reasons as to why he reacted the way he did when I told him that I need spectacles. Because of his life experiences, the issue of glasses gave him a negative notion. It is because of this traumatic life experience that I do not feel like I have experienced a normal childhood, just like the other children. I have grown up as an introvert and with a strong self dismissal factor since I always lack the self confidence while doing anything. I was always embarrassed and suppressed, especially when my friends mocked me for mistakes I had done, I lived with a self-denial element and with the impression that nothing good can come out of me (Carducci, 2006). This experience impacted my life in such a negative way. In some instances, such memories are repressed in my unconscious, but will be dominant in certain situations. Frequently, I become tensed and anxious over tests or exams. Sometimes such experiences upsets me more, but because of my education in psychology and my dream job of being a psychologist, I would wish for people surmount these kinds of problems and instill self acceptance and confidence (Carducci, 2006). Sometimes, though, I get worried over how I will manage to help others if I personally cannot get over this situation. Coming to the United States was also very stressful. At first, I thought it was because everything around me was new and that I needed time to adapt to it, but after a period of close to six months, I still had the same problems. I realized that, I would be very stressed, especially over tests and exams. I asked myself why I was like this, but I could not find an answer. One day, I decided to research on ways of controlling stress in the workplace and I found a video on YouTube on the symptoms of stress. I felt like the doctor in the video was describing me. This then prompted me to further research. I eventually found a site on Cognitive Behavioral Therapy plans (Carducci, 2006). This framework was supervised by a certain doctor and I enrolled in a treatment plan. This move did not only help me understand myself better and how to address my own issues but also gave me an idea of the tools that I needed to use as a psychologist. Strategies such as the gradual method of reassurance, relaxation, and changing of negative thoughts were very helpful to me. I am presently affected by my past life experiences, but not like when I was a child and this is because I now understand the roots of anxiety in my personal life and how I can deal with them. Therefore, I hope that when I begin working with children, I will help them overcome any encumbrance or trauma, which may impact their future if not addressed in time. I will teach them the strategies of building self-confidence and how to express themselves clearly. That will undoubtedly give them tools to use when they are faced with such problems or challenges (Carducci, 2006). Additionally, I hope to be a model of unconditional love so they have something to remember and guide them when they begin to raise their own children. I feel this model will be accomplished by establishing a warm relationship with them, and creating a secure and stable environment just to get them on the right psychological track for decent growth and development. On the other hand, I have learned to empathize with my father’s experience and would say to him “Thank you so much for this trauma, ” because without such an experience, I would never have become a psychologist. I also believe that the experience of this trauma has helped me to understand and empathize with people and children who are suffering. With my level of education, I will be able to use my academic experience to help them overcome their psychological challenges (Carducci, 2006). Being in high schoolhas been one of the critical periods of developing personal social skills. This is because I underwent a successful development of social development through the help of my mother. The fact that I am beyond the influence of peer pressure, I am able to build friendship, interact with people of different backgrounds freely and according them the deserved respect. Many people described me as a social person at the moment, although I had challenges developing proper social skills. In my earlier years, I did not socialize with people outside the family setting a factor that limited number of friends that I had (Carducci, 2006). I always felt confident when initiating conversations with family members whom I knew their values and backgrounds. When I moved to a new school after we moved to a new region, it proved difficult to make new friends. Being in an inclusive school that has students from different ethnic backgrounds confused me initially. I did not understand the cultural setup of many of their ethnicities and I was afraid of being close to them. Through positive criticism, my mother helped me realize the value of understanding other people’s culture and appreciating them. This motivated me to develop new friendships that have defined my social life as it is in the present. Over the years, I have exhibited positive cognitive development. This is because I have developed and exhibited different intellectual capacities. I am competent in five different languages a factor that shows successful language development. During my entry to high school, my intelligence test results revealed that I was an above average student. Over the years, I have worked towards developing other types of intelligences in my bid to register a high academic performance. Concerning my perceptive cognition, I have registered immense growth over the years as I am able to handle hypothetical situations on my own (Carducci, 2006). The fact that I can use logic to make critical life decisions is also evidence of positive cognitive development. Conclusion As highlighted above, studies of human development are critical in understanding the different changes that take place in the life of an individual as he or she moves from one developmental stage to another. Moreover, having an advanced understanding of the different stages and the main changes that define its stage, is critical in assessing whether an individual has undergone positive development, in the case of children, understanding the changes in different stages can help identify any problem hindering positive development and addressing it in the earlier stages. According to Erikson, human beings undergo eight different developmental stages as have been described above. Moreover, this essay has identified some of the critical people and events that have defined personal development from childhood to the present. References Carducci, B. J. (2006). The psychology of personality. Oxford: Blackwell. Louw, D. A., Van, E. D. M., Louw, A. E., & Botha, A. (2004). Human development. Cape Town: Kagiso Tertiary. Shaffer, D. R. (2009). Social and personality development. Australia: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Shaffer, D. R., & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Thies, K. M., & Travers, J. F. (2001). Human growth and development through the lifespan. Thorofare, N.J: Slack. Read More