Ways to Conduct a Research - Essay Example

Research Methodology School Research Methodology Overview As with any research project determining the best methodology to gather data when conducting research is of paramount importance to ensure success of one's research project. Inevitably, when a discussion arises concerning methodology, there is the usual debate over the pros and cons of quantitative analysis versus qualitative analysis. Briefly, qualitative analysis generally involves words and quantitative analysis deals with numbers. This is a rather a simplistic definition, but it is true. Qualitative analysis is a research type centred more on inductive reasoning. Through delving into the area being researched, the qualitative method allows the researcher to become a more active participant in the data gathering phase. Logically then, when utilizing qualitative methods, a hypothesis is not required prior to the data gathering phase as the researcher reaches their conclusions as the data is being collected. Quantitative research, on the other hand, is more involved with the gathering of empirical data, numbers and statistics. As quantitative analysis is more concrete in nature, as it deals with figures as opposed to words which can be interpreted, quantitative analysis is perceived to be more logical in nature. Also, when using this method, the researcher is generally categorized as an impartial observer as opposed to an active participant. Logically, with quantitative research the basic premise of the research needs to be defined prior to the data collection. Therefore, a hypothesis needs to be established prior to the commencement of data collection ("The qualitative", 2006). Qualitative vs. Quantitative Due to the empirical foundations of quantitative research many people feel that it is more scientific in nature and therefore 'better'; however, this is not necessarily true. The main determinant in arriving upon a research methodology is the type of data collection method that best achieves the goals of the researcher. Each type has an appropriate use and more frequently researchers are combining the two techniques in order to gain better insight into the research topic. For the purpose of this research undertaking, however, it was determined that a qualitative approach better suited the aims and objectives to be achieved, in order to determine if motivation is central to successful management Types of Qualitative Research Methods Upon determining that qualitative research was the preferred method of research, the author needed to research the several methodologies available and select the one best suited to enable the author to research and analyse the effect of motivation on successful management. In the following paragraphs the various types of qualitative research methods evaluated and the strengths and weaknesses of each are presented and discussed. Secondary Research/Desk Research Secondary research is designed to provide the evaluation of experts which has been reviewed by other experts (Haley, 2003). This type of research, sometimes referred to as desk research, involves "systematically and objectively locating, evaluating, and synthesizing evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions concerning a set of events. Rather than collecting data, secondary data is used, that is, documents that are already in existence, published and unpublished" (Britton, 1996, p. 1). The use of secondary research allows for the analysis of a broad range of topics that can be thoroughly investigated and has proven to be credible. In addition, there are time limitations that may inhibit the ability of the researcher to conduct primary research and secondary research allows for analysis of a great amount of data in minimal time. According to Haley (2003) many researchers have opted to conduct secondary research as opposed to primary research. Procter (1993) asserts that "more generally, limited opportunities for conducting primary research and the costs of qualitative work have prompted researchers to consider maximizing use of the data available to them" (Procter 1993 in Heaton 1998, p.1). Although secondary research is used quite often, there are drawbacks associated with the use of such data. Haley asserts that there are problems associated with understanding where primary data ends and secondary data begin. This problem exists because it is "an iterative process and grounded theory in particular requires that questions undergo a process of formulation and refinement over time" (Glaser, 1992, p. 31) For primary researchers, in reusing their own data, it may be difficult to determine whether the research is part of the original enquiry or sufficiently new and distinct from it to qualify as secondary analysis. For independent analysts, re-using other researchers' data there are also related professional issues about the degree of overlap between their respective works. "There is no easy solution to these problems except to say that greater awareness of secondary analysis might enable researchers to more appropriately recognize and define their work as such" (Heaton, 1998, p. 1) In addition, secondary data can often contain biases presented by the business or the person that conducted the research. For instance, research conducted by a particular company may have a different bias than the research presented by an independent researcher evaluating that particular topic. These biases exist because organizations often have agendas associated with the information that is published. Understanding that such bias exist is essential for a researcher. If the researcher understands this, they can present the research in a way that is objective and balanced. There can also be problems associated in the way in which the research used to compile secondary data is conducted. In other words the research may not be as accurate as the researcher believes. There are also issues associated with the misinterpretation of the research. The manner in which the researcher interprets the data can significantly influence the way in which the research is perceived. For instance, the researcher may draw conclusions based on data that has been misinterpreted. In turn, the research becomes increasingly more subjective and may become irrelevant. Although there are problems associated with the use of secondary research in methodology there is enough evidence to suggest that it can be used effectively in the development of research and to draw conclusions about a general topic. Although secondary research is frequently used, in order to completely analyse this topic secondary data although useful for background information does not suffice for the main research topic. In order to fully understand how motivation interacts the author needs face to face interaction to uncover the motivational forces in place that drive our decisions and thought processes. This can only be achieved through direct interaction with research subjects. Questionnaire/Survey The use of questionnaires/surveys is a popular method of gaining information from a large group of people in a relatively short period of time. Simply put, in constructing a questionnaire the researcher tests his hypothesis through analysing responses received. The construction of the questionnaire requires the researcher to construct specific questions whose responses meet the objectives of their research. For example, the researcher needs to decide what questions need to be asked which will provide the data needed to validate or disprove their hypothesis. A great deal of care must be taken in constructing the questionnaire to ensure clarity. The researcher has no contact with those responding to the survey so the design becomes critical to ensure clarity. As stated, a questionnaire or survey can be used to contact a wide range of people that may not be accessible by other methods. Generally, questionnaires/surveys are relatively inexpensive. For example, mailed questionnaires require only postage to and from the respondent. Additionally, the researcher has the benefit of targeting specific people or groups of people. Often questionnaires or surveys offer access to individuals that the researcher would not have access to by other means. When time constraints prevail, use of the questionnaire or survey is very useful. Additionally, responses by those participating in questionnaires ensure the anonymity of the respondents should that be of concern to them; this does, however, lead to a drawback for the researcher as no follow up questions can be asked of specific respondents. One other major benefit of the questionnaire, in particular, is that it allows the respondent to provide his response at a time convenient to him. Other methods of data collection may conflict with the respondents schedule and they, therefore, will not supply answers. The questionnaire allows them to do so when their schedule permits. However, there is no way to ensure that respondents will complete and return surveys and if they are collected anonymously no way for the researcher to follow up other than to request submission to all those mailed surveys initially. This will increase the cost and time of data collection. The primary drawbacks of questionnaires/surveys are detailed below. These pose serious problems to author's ability to gain credible data for completion of this research topic. There have been several problems noted with use of questionnaires/surveys and in particular self-report questionnaires. Firstly, when respondents are answering a questionnaire there is no way for the researcher to know that the questions were understood and responded to exactly as the researcher intended. Without the benefit of face to face contact, the validity of responses in the questionnaire comes into play. There is no way for the researcher to clarify questions or ambiguities if any are present or any way for them to detect if there was any uncertainty or misunderstanding (Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Podsakoff & Lee, 2003). Although this concern can, with careful questionnaire construction, be minimised there are other larger inherent problems with respondents' biases and conscious or unconscious motivations that are nearly impossible to eliminate and detect when the primary research data used is collected by questionnaires or surveys. Researchers have found (see Podsakoff et al, 2003; Williams & Anderson, 1994; Bagozzi & Yi, 1990) that a person's basic outlook on life can impact their responses on questionnaires and surveys. In brief, people with an optimistic disposition tend to respond favourably while those with a more pessimistic outlook on life tend to answer questions negatively. Podsakoff et al (2003), in particular, noted "positive and negative affectivity may influence the relationships between variables in organizational research" (p. 883). If the researcher has no direct contact with the respondent and only has the results of the questionnaire/survey on which to base their findings the researcher is unaware that this bias exists. Such findings will greatly affect the outcome of the study and result in faulty results. When using a questionnaire/survey, the researcher is limited in the amount of questions he can ask and the range of responses offered. Likewise, the person completing the survey is limited to the responses available to him. This can limit the findings of the research. For example, "If a person is asked to describe his job in terms that are of interest to the investigator, he can do so. But if the individual is then asked how he feels about the job, he has few options but to respond using the information the investigator has made salient" (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1977, p. 451) As Freud (1901) stated in his book Psychopathology of Everyday Life where referring to mistakes in reading, very often the subconscious sees not the actual words but what the subconscious wants the conscious to see. As he states: "That the same view-points and observation should hold true for mistakes in reading and writing as for lapses in speech is not at all surprising when one remembers the inner relation of these functions. I shall here confine myself to the reports of several carefully analysed examples and shall make no attempt to include all of the phenomena" (Chapter 6). Freud continues by citing several examples where he has read, not the words written, but, rather what his unconscious wanted him to see. Additionally, he provided further examples of the same behaviour in others, concluding that this unconscious behavior, often unnoticed, can and does change the entire meaning of what is trying to be conveyed. Freud went on to state that the same motivations that cause us to read words incorrectly based on our unconscious desires are also present in our writing; unconsciously we replace and change written words or phrases. With these factors in mind, use of a questionnaire/survey without the benefit of the researcher being present to validate responses will result in the subject misreading what is written and thereby providing, albeit unintentionally, erroneous information which will, ultimately, result in incorrect findings. Another area of concern relates to 'social desirability'. According to Crowne and Marlowe (1964) who, in actuality have restated Freud's theory of psychoanalysis, stated that there is a natural tendency of people to want to be viewed in a manner that they perceive to be socially desirable. Often they will respond as they think they should, in what they consider to be the socially acceptable manner, rather than as the actually believe. Social desirability, therefore, "refers to the need for social approval and acceptance and the belief that it can be attained by means of culturally acceptable and appropriate behaviours" (p. 109). People's motivations to be viewed favourably, regardless of their true feelings, have the potential of producing erroneous findings particularly if questionnaires/surveys are used; therefore, the researcher questions their usefulness as the primary method of data collection. Freud elaborated further on motivation in his theory of the psychoanalysis. The unconscious plays particular importance here. The premise of his theory of psychoanalysis finds two main purposes for existence of the unconscious: "A repository for traumatic repressed memories The source of anxiety-provoking drives, which are socially or ethically unacceptable to the individual" (Rowell, 2006, screen 1) Freudian theory explains that what we consider socially unacceptable thoughts are repressed. In order to obtain societal and cultural approval, we do not necessarily say or do what we think or feel. For instance, a person may say that what motivates him is job satisfaction and love of his job, both idealistic concepts. However, in reality what truly may motivate an employee is money which explains why the job they love will soon be forgotten when offered another position for more pay elsewhere. His motivation, therefore, was not altruistic in nature (i.e. internal satisfaction); rather, the motivational factor was money. It was not until the employee was offered a new job that his true beliefs were revealed. What truly motivated him, money, was never stated; rather it remained hidden in his unconsciousness. Without personal interaction with the researcher the true motivations of the subject will not be revealed. As Freud has shown through his Theory of Pscyhoanalysis Interviews Use of the personal interview is a common method used to collect information regarding a topic. An interview allows for the in-depth analysis of an expert or professional within the scope of the research topic to provide meaningful data to the researcher in a one-on-one, face to face basis. The researcher has the responsibility of designing an initial set of questions designed to provide the information needed to test the validity of their hypothesis. This preparation must be done well in advance and evaluated to ensure the questions asked will yield the information needed to further the research ("Conducting field", 2006, screen 1). The main benefit of the personal interview over the other types of research discussed in the previous paragraphs is the ability of the researcher to relate directly with the subject. Not only do they hear the responses being given but through use of cues given by the subject they can expand a line of query to gain further insight into a particular area, ask for clarification of points made or use specific interview techniques such as mirroring to validate the answers a subject gives. Through a two-way conversation the research can use his perceptions to ferret out the true meaning behind the subject's answers which initially may or may not truly reflect their feelings or motivation. Through understanding the Freudian theory of psychoanalysis, the researcher can ,through additional questioning and probing, gain a better understanding of what motivates the subject and what he is truly thinking , feeling or believes. This in-depth exchange is not available through any of the other methods discussed. As discussed previously human nature has shown us that people wish to be viewed in the best possible light. Therefore, they may be motivated, knowingly or unknowingly, to answer questions in a particular way because, unconsciously or otherwise, they believe that is 'the expected' or 'correct' answer. The interview allows the researcher to get past personal motivations and perceptions to the answers behind the surface and gain a thorough understanding of the subject being researched. This in-depth investigation is not available with other methods that offer a broad range of general information across a wide group of subjects. Justification for Methodology Selection Upon conducting research into the various types of methodology available for research, the writer determined that due to the nature of the of the topic of this research, to assess if motivation is central to successful management, the use of a personal interview as the primary method of data collection was most appropriate. Allowing the researcher to become immersed in the subject through interviewing enables the researcher to develop a bond with the subject and gain knowledge and information that would not be available otherwise. Due to the nature of the research topic, research into one company is the most appropriate means of achieving the level of detail needed to thoroughly research this subject. Through the use of the personal interview the researcher will be able to probe more deeply into the subject area and gain more insight into specific details that would not be otherwise available to the researcher. Rather than gain a wide range of generalized information where the subjects may or may not give much forethought into their responses, through the researcher's selected method of interview greater depth of knowledge will be obtained. According to Freud (1940): "Thus we have attributed three qualities to mental processes: they are either conscious, preconscious, or unconscious. The division between the three classes of material which have these qualities is neither absolute nor permanent. What is preconscious becomes conscious, as we have seen, without any activity on our part; what is unconscious can, as a result of our efforts, be made conscious, though in the process we may have an impression that we are overcoming what are often very strong resistances. When we make an attempt of this kind upon someone else, we ought not to forget that the conscious filling up of the breaks in his perceptions--the construction which we are offering him--does not so far mean that we have made conscious in him the unconscious material in question. All that is so far true is that the material is present in his mind in two versions, first in the conscious reconstruction that he has just received and secondly in its original unconscious condition" (as quoted in "An outline", 2006, screen 1). Through utilisation of in-depth interview, the researcher will, through discourse, illicit responses from the subject that may not be available without assisting in bring these perceptions, ideas and motivations from the unconscious to the conscious. In order fully understand and determine if motivation is a central factor to successful management, the researcher must understand the motivation behind the subject that can only be obtained through in-depth interview. 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N.Y.: Norton. and from "New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis" (1933)., translated by W. J. H. Sprott. N.Y.: Norton. Retrieved 26 March 2006, from http://www.ship.edu/cgboeree/freudselection.html Glaser, B.G. (1992) Basics of Grounded Theory Analysis. Mill Valley, CA: Sociology Press. Haley, G. (Mar. 5, 2003). "An introduction to using data at DPLS." Data and Program Library Service Website. Retrieved 25 March 2006, from http://dpls.dacc.wisc.edu/types/secondary.htm Heaton, J. (Fall 1998). "Secondary analysis of qualitative data." Social Research Update, 22. Retrieved 25 March 2006, from http://www.soc.surrey.ac.uk/sru/SRU22.html Podsakoff, P. M., Mackenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, N. P., and Lee, J. Y. (2003). "Common method biases in behavioural research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies." Journal of Applied Psychology, 88:5, pp. 879-903. Procter, M. (1993) "Analysing other researchers' data." in Gilbert, N. (Ed.) Researching Social Life. London: Sage. 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