Multicultural Aspects of Disabilities - Research Paper Example

Multicultural Aspects of Disabilities I. Asian Pacific Americans Introduction Asian Americans constitute one of the fastest growing ethnic groups within the United States. This growth has largely been an aspect of the past forty years, as this period has witnessed an astonishing 800 percent increase in this minority group. Even with this rapid growth Asian Pacific Americans only constitute 3 percent of the entire population. One notable misconception of this ethnic minority group is that they are homogenous. In actuality, Asian Pacific Americans constitute a highly diverse group of cultures from a wide array of countries that includes China, Japan, Korea, Burma, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. There are over twenty subgroups of Asian Americans. In this regard, it’s important not to over generalize as to one monolithic ‘Asian Pacific’ culture, as therapy patients will have a variety of historical backgrounds and cultural paradigms. (Bryan 2007) Background While Asian Pacific minorities were a part of the American landscape as far back as the 1760s, Chinese who immigrated in the 1840s for the gold rush are generally regarded as the first appearance of the ethnic group. In great part they were accepted for the cheap labor they supplied. (Bryan 2007) As the economic boom dried up the attitude towards this ethnic group shifted to become increasingly resentful of the competition they presented to Euro-Americans for employment; subsequently, a number of discriminatory laws were passed. Because of the increasing levels of discrimination the Chinese ethnic groups banned together and formed what are now called ‘chinatowns’. Today nearly 70 percent of the population is first generation immigrants. (Bryan 2007) Other significant immigrations were the Japanese who began in the late nineteenth century. One of the most significant discriminatory practices they faced was with the World War II internment camps. This is a relevant occurrence for contemporary therapy as shades of this incident continue to affect Japanese conceptions of mainstream American society. The Model Minority In great part, Asian Pacific Americans have been portrayed as the ‘successful’ ethnic minority. This ethnic minority has demonstrated great adjustment to Western culture and has in great part exceeded the median national income. They also demonstrate low levels of juvenile delinquency and psychiatric disorders. However, a number of researchers argue that positioning Asian Pacific Americans as the ‘model’ minority is a misconception. They account for their high median incomes by pointing to the household containing more income earners and argue that they face a similar glass ceiling to other ethnic minorities. Asian Pacific minorities face a number of challenges including resentment from outside minority groups since for being deemed less capable than the Asian Pacific groups; government aid may also be curtailed since the overriding conception is that Asian Americans have already overcome the constraints of their minority status; finally it’s possible that Asian Americans have attained ‘false consciousness’ in believing they are the model minority, when in actuality they face discrepancies in income and employment. Disabilities For the counseling professional it’s important to note that the disabled have been traditionally been looked on as outcasts in Asian culture. Discussing her experience growing up Asian American and disabled Tsao writes, “Disability is still a taboo topic within many parts of Asian cultures. People with disabilities are often seen as outcasts of society and worthless citizens. In many modern-day Asian countries, the disabled are still regarded as incapable of becoming educated, functioning members of society” (Tsao, Web). The United States Census Bureau determined that Asian Pacific Americans have the lowest percentage of disabilities of any ethnic minority group. Generally, researchers agree on this aspect of Asian Pacific ethnic minorities, however they may disagree on the actual percentages of the figures. The discrepancy in the figures is a result of what are believed to be the underreporting of mental illnesses, as well as the high amount of Asian Pacific Americans who own businesses further reducing accurate statistical measures. Education When considering education, there is a mixed understanding of the extent that Asian Pacific Americans are adequately represented. In this respect the Asian American’s ‘model’ minority status creates the perception that they are highly successful in higher education. Researchers argue that Asian Pacific Americans in fact do place great stress on the importance of success in education. A large amount of Asian Americans take college preparatory classes in post-secondary school and a higher percentage takes the Standardized Achievement Test. They are also well prepared for analytical thinking. Conversely, researchers argue that Asian Pacific Americans are less skilled in verbal/linguistic areas. This has been attributed to the extremely high (65%) number of Asian Americans who are foreign born. While Chinese and Japanese have little trouble gaining admission to college, other Asian groups – including Asians and Filipino’s – are underrepresented. Furthermore, their salary is not proportionate to their education level. Family Dynamics When considering Asian Pacific American family dynamics it’s necessary to consider the groups in relation to their specific historical lineage. It’s important for the helping professional to consider the traditional customs of these groups, as well as the ways that Western culture has altered their culture. When considering Chinese Americans, it has been noted that traditionally they exhibit extended kinship groups, are patriarchal, and emphasize filial piety; while by contemporary westernized standards they have been characterized as having both parents work, a semi-extended family structure, with middle class families having become highly educated and moving out of Chinatown into traditional suburbs. When considering Korean Americans researchers note that they may exhibit higher levels of ethnic attachment than other Asian Pacific minority groups. In this regard, Korean Americans exhibit small levels of change from their traditional culture to their westernized version of culture. Therapeutic Intervention For the helping professional it’s necessary to determine a number of things about the Asian Pacific client. The foundational elements in the therapeutic process should consider whether the Asian American was foreign born and which Asian country they are affiliated with. The helping professional must also be cognizant of which generation the Asian American represents, as acculturation levels will be different in proportion to time spent in the United States. As one might suspect, the longer that Asian Americans have been a part of the American culture, the better they respond to the western therapeutic process. It’s also necessary to determine the level the patient’s parent’s acculturation, as this will affect the patient’s adaptation to American society. The extent to which the Asian American has adapted into American culture is also greatly reflected in their communication style, with the more acculturated exhibiting communication trends similar to that of the dominant society. It’s necessary for the counseling professional to work towards determining what barriers to communicative adaptation the client may have experienced – be it parental, employment related, etc. Many Asian Americans may at first be resistant to counseling because they associate their problems with physical ailments. They may be apprehensive that western ‘talk therapy’ can benefit their emotional problems. They also may view the counselor as an authoritarian figure and expect this professional to have firm answers rather than questions. In these regards, it might be necessary for the helping professional to explain the therapeutic process to the client and slightly adapt it to their conceptions. Researchers have also identified significant differences between Asian Pacific and Euro Americans in value orientation. It’s been argued that Eastern values place higher emphasis on group and collective values, while westerners are more pragmatic and individual. This is significant for the therapeutic process, as the helping professional would be better suited emphasizing the benefits of rehabilitation on the patients family or significant others. It’s also important to consider the family dynamics as they often function through disciplinary guilt mechanisms; because of this, it’s sometimes necessary to bring the family into the therapy session. When mental issues are central to the problem, it’s important that the helping professional avoid bringing shame to the family. In this regard, it’s oftentimes difficult for the client to be open about their problems and the counseling professional must develop culturally sensitive ways of eliciting necessary information, or refer the client to another therapist. II. Hispanic/Latino Americans Introduction As the United States has become more attuned to the needs of Hispanic/Latino American ethnic minorities there has been a corresponding moved towards greater and more specific levels of classification. While in most part they are referred to as whatever label they choose to respond, there has also been a noted evolution in Hispanic label, with the current label Hispanic/Latino American. ‘Chicano’ was a term that developed out of 1960s and 1970s activist movements and it was designed to bring attention to the economic poverty of Mexico. (Bryan 2007) Today, it has lost primacy as an ethnic monitor as in great part it seems to indicate racial pride and consciousness; for some Mexican’s it remains a positive term, while for others it has become derisive. Similar to Asian Pacific Americans, Hispanic/Latino Americans are a diverse group constituted from a wide array of countries, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Dominican Republic, and Mexico. In great part the Hispanic/Latino label functions to unite these groups under a cooperative moniker, but should not be misconstrued as adequately referring to the entire population. (Axelson 1999) Background As Asian Pacific Americans must be understood within the framework of individual historical backgrounds, so must the helping professional differentiate between the varying historical strands of Hispanic/Latino culture. During the nearly two hundred years that Spain ruled Mexico a significant portion of the United States was under Mexican control. During this period a considerable amount of integration occurred between Spanish conquistadors, traditional Mexicans, and indigenous Indians. This ethnic hybrid is what today constitutes a large majority of Mexican Americans. Puerto Rico became a United States territory in 1898 and since then Puerto Ricans have been able to enter and leave the United States will little restrictions; their immigration trends seem to be linked to the current economic situation in their home country. Similar to Mexico, Cuban was under Spanish rule for 300 years. Spanish rule in Cuba has been argued to have been highly domineering. Researchers also indicate that the Chinese and Africans have had a notable influence on Cuban culture. There have been a number of different waves of Cuban immigration beginning in the early 20th century. As a result therapeutic professionals encounter Cuban Americans with diverse levels of acculturation. It’s notable that the earlier waves of Cuba immigrants were more economically sound and better educated than later waves of immigration. It’s also notable that under Castro’s regime disability and criminal status are in many instances derived from different structural foundations than within the United States. The Hispanic/Latino ethnic minority has surpassed African Americans as the most populous ethnic minority within the United States. It’s estimated that by the mid-twenty-first century their population will be near 100 million because of increased immigration and the relative young age of their population. (Bryan 2007) In great part Hispanic/Latino immigration into the United States is welcomed based in part on the need for cheap labor. As demand for labor decreases so does the rise in discriminatory attitudes towards the Hispanic/Latino American workers. A number of features notable for the helping professional are intertwined in Hispanic immigration. Researchers note that Puerto Ricans, even more than Mexicans, are considered the most discriminated among the Hispanic ethnic minorities. Cubans, because of their intermittent migratory practices, have had considerable difficulties acculturating to United States society. Human rights observers note that many times the lighter pigment Hispanic Americans experience less degrees of discrimination as they are closer in skin composition to Euro-Americans. While various degrees of opposition to the types of rights that should be granted to non-U.S. citizens exist, for helping professionals it’s notable that the Americans with Disabilities Act prevents discrimination of people with disabilities even if they are not United States citizens. Miscellaneous Problems One of the major problems Hispanic/Latino Americans face in successfully integrating into United States society arises as a result of communication barriers. Because of their language difficulties Hispanic Americans face considerable amounts of discrimination, most prominently in employment. Their communication difficulties also make them frequent victims of exploitation, such as experiencing hazardous work and living conditions, as well being underpaid. While not as large a percentage as African Americans, Hispanic/Latino Americans also exhibit a high percentage of teenage pregnancy. With Cubans having the lowest rates of teenage pregnancy and Puerto Ricans having the highest. Aids is also prominent among Hispanic/Latino populations as the proportion of Latinos with aids to Euro-Americans is 9.3 to 1. (Bryan 2007) Health Problems One of the greatest problems Hispanic/Latino Americans face is attaining adequate health care. Because of their non-citizenship status, many times Mexican Americans will ignore smaller health issues and only visit health professionals at critical junctures. This trend results in a snowball effect of illness. In addition lack of education regarding health problems of certain behaviors often results in significant health problems. One such example is the prevalence of smoking among Hispanic/Latino Americans. This results in increased levels of cancer and cardiovascular disease. Asthma is another large problem, as one study showed that, “Hispanics/Latinos had an asthma death rate of 34 per million -- more than twice the rate for white Americans” (Wong-Hernandez, 2006, Web). One of the most prominent diseases among Hispanic/Latino Americans is diabetes, with Hispanics having nearly two to three times the number of cases of diabetes than Euro-Americans. Employment and Economic Issues Hispanic/Latino Americans have a long documented history of being underrepresented economically in comparison to the rest of the population. Puerto Ricans have the lowest economic status, followed by Mexicans, and Cubans. The average family income for Hispanic/Latino Americans was $24,000 compared with $37,000 for Euro-Americans. (Bryan 2007) Grouping Hispanics into one economic class reduces the emphasis on the gross rates of poverty experienced by Puerto Ricans in respect to the rest of the population. The rate of unemployment for Hispanic/Latino Americans has been documented to be generally more than twice the national average, and as much as 44 percent of Hispanics dropout of high school. Therapeutic Interventions Similar to Asian Pacific Americans, it’s necessary for the therapeutic professional to attend to the specific details of the patient’s background. This regards both the specificity of their culture, be it Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican, etc. as well as their and their family’s level of acculturation. For younger Hispanic/Latinos the rate of acculturation has been demonstrated to occur at more rapid rates than older immigrants; lower levels of socioeconomic status put Latinos in more direct contact with the dominant culture, further expediting the acculturation process. As a result, therapeutic professionals must remain cognizant of these factors when counseling Hispanic Americans. When considering communication styles it’s necessary for the counseling professional to remain conscious of distinct factors. Oftentimes, Hispanic silence is not demonstrative of a lack of intelligence or understanding, but a communicative expression of respect. In these instances, it’s recommended that the counseling professional proceeds by asking questions of the client in accepting and non-threatening ways. In some instances the client’s reticence may be an aspect of not understanding English, so that the therapist should seek an interpreter or refer the client to a Spanish speaker. In all instances it’s necessary to demonstrate adequate levels of sensitivity. It’s also very important for the client to remain actively involved in the therapeutic process, as communication barriers and discrepancies arise when the client maintains a passive and reticent stance. In many instance Hispanic/Latino Americans attribute occurrences to luck, god, or outside control. As a result it’s necessary for the helping professional to adapt their therapeutic style to fit these paradigms. It’s important for helping professionals to be conscious of the strong value Hispanics place on respect, dignity, and folk medicine. In regards to respect and dignity the helping professional should understand that oftentimes family members will refuse to answer questions as they might be disrespectful to another person. Considering folk medicine, it’s necessary for the helping professional to be aware that many Hispanics may place great faith in folk medicine and it may be necessary to explain the role a physician could play in helping them with a specific issue. References Axelson, John. (1999) Counseling and Development in a Multicultural Society. Brooks/Cole Publishing. Bryan, W. V/ (2007) Multicultural aspects of disabilities. (Second Edition). Charles C. Thomas publisher. Springfield Il. Lucy Wong-Hernandez. (2006) ‘Health Disparities and Disabilities among Populations’. http://74.125.93.132/search?q=cache:ihaHcv7xVqMJ:www.ecu.edu/cs-dhs/ah/upload/Mills_Presentation_Hispanics.ppt+hispanic+american+disabilities&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us Tsao, Grace. ‘Growing Up Asian American with a Disability’. http://www.colorado.edu/journals/standards/V7N1/FIRSTPERSON/tsao.html Read More