United States Minority Groups - Research Paper Example

? United s Minority Groups The U.S. is a characteristic immigrant society with more than two hundred years of immigration history. Immigration and acculturation can be regarded as critical components of America’s history given that, from the pilgrims to European immigrants to recent immigrants, the U.S. has attracted people from around the globe for a broad range of questions. As a result, America manifests a rich, enormous multicultural diversity. The diverse historical contexts and source countries of immigration encompasses diverse compositions and diverse experiences of the minority ethnic groups. The paper analyzes and explores U.S. minority groups in terms of acculturation and integration. United States Minority Groups Introduction The U.S. manifests a racially and ethnically diverse population. In recent decades, new immigrants from Latin America and Asia have added cultural and phenotypic diversity to the American population during, in the same way that immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe did centuries ago. As a result, the boundaries between ethnic and racial groups are becoming increasingly blurred owing to the high rates if intermarriage and the rising number of person with mixed ancestry. The metaphor, “melting pot,” aligns with the thesis of the declining importance of race and ethnicity within American society. Other perceive that racial divisions will increase as some immigrant groups integrate within a broadened and privileged white population while other interpret this as being “racialized” as disadvantaged black and brown minorities. The contradictory accounts partly emanate from divergent ideological presuppositions, as well as based on racial and ethnic identities that are not mutually exclusive. Race and ethnicity are prominent concepts within the field of sociology given that they both play a significant role in the everyday human interactions. In order to comprehend the sociological perspective on race and ethnicity, it is essential to comprehend the meanings of these concepts. The difference between the various ethnic/racial groups can be explained by two perspectives, namely: minority status perspective and ethnic-culture perspective. A group may be categorized as a minority based on ethnicity, sexual preference, race, age, or class status. It is essential to highlight that a minority group is not necessarily the minority group based on the number, but rather it represents a group that holds a low status relative to other groups within the society. Some of the characteristics of a minority include: having distinguishing physical or cultural traits such as language or skin color; enjoyment of less power over their lives or unequal treatment; high in-group marriage; involuntary membership within the group; and, awareness of subordination and a strong sense of group solidarity (Healey, 2014). Background A census mainly highlights six ethnic and racial categories, namely: White American, Asian, African American, Native Hawaiian, American Indian and Alaska, and other Pacific Islander, as well as “Some other race.” The U.S. Census Bureau also categorizes Americans as “Hispanic” or “Latino” that highlights Hispanic and Latino Americans as racially diverse ethnicity that constitutes the biggest minority group within the nation. White Americans constitutes 72% share of the U.S. share of the U.S. population (2010 U.S. Census). Hispanic and Latino Americans constitute 17% of the population (about 53 million), which makes up the biggest minority. African Americans are the biggest racial minority constituting close to 13% of the population. In 2012, Asian Americans constituted the fastest-growing race (ethnic group), whereby the population of Asian Americans increased to 18.9 million. For Asian Americans, the bulk of the population growth (over 60%) driven by international migration while 76% of the Hispanic population growth can be attributed to natural increase. Hispanics constitutes the youngest of the major ethnicities and races given that 40% fall under the age of 21 in 2011 (United States Census, 2012). The U.S. minority population reach 116 million people (1.9% increase), which accounted for about 37% of the entire population. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of July 2012, 50.4% of the U.S. population younger than age 1 was minorities. Sociological theory application on United States Minority Groups American sociologists have established a rich body of theories and concepts grounded in the assimilation experiences of the immigrants. Park asserted that when groups come into contact, the relations between the groups are largely conflictual and competitive. Park stipulated that assimilation is foreseeable in a democratic and industrial society. One of the criticism leveled against Park’s theory notes that Park did not state a time frame for the completion of assimilation and the notion that assimilation is “inevitable” cannot be tested. Milton Gordon also made a significant contribution to the theories of assimilation. Gordon made a difference between the cultural and the structural components of society. Culture entails all aspects of the way of life linked to a group of people including language, beliefs, customs, values, rules of etiquette, and ideas people utilize to organize their existence. The social structure (structural elements of a society) encompasses groups, social relationships, stratification systems, organizations, families, and communities (Berry, 1997). The social structure organizes the work of the society and links individuals to one another and to the bigger society. Gordon’s stages of assimilation include acculturation, integration (structural assimilation), and intermarriage (marital assimilation). Consequent to Gordon’s sub processes, a second form of pluralism exists in which a group acculturates but fails to integrate. This explains the phenomenon of a group that adopts Anglo-American culture, but fails to enjoy full and equal access to the institutions of the bigger society. Under structural pluralism, groups practice a shared culture but do so in diverse places and with minimal interaction across group boundaries. Over the years, theories of acculturation have evolved from the unidirectional school of thought with an emphasis centering on assimilation to bidimensional and interactive perspectives that hypothesize diverse acculturative outcomes. Acculturation represents the process in which members of one cultural embrace the beliefs and behaviors of another group. Acculturation is largely in the direction of a minority group embracing the dominant group's culture; however, acculturation can also be reciprocal (Marger, 2012). The assimilation of one cultural group into another may be demonstrated by changes within language preference, embracing of shared attitudes and values, loss of ethnic identification, and membership into shared social groups and institutions (Stone, 1974). Some of the factors impacting on acculturation include racism, motive for migration, language, attitude of the host culture, cultural distance, motivation, education, age, and generation One form of assimilation in the U.S. expressed in the metaphor of the “melting pot,” which represents the process through which diverse groups come together and contribute to generate a shared culture and a new, distinct society. Although, the melting pot metaphor is a powerful image within the society, the description cannot be an accurate description of how assimilation proceeded for American minority groups. This draws from the fact that some groups such as a racial minority groups largely excluded from the “melting pot” process. In terms of Americanization, there has been an unequal sharing of elements and gradual blending of diverse peoples, whereby assimilation within the U.S. seeks to sustain the predominance of the English language, as well as British-type institutional patterns generated during early years of American society. Under Anglo-conformity, immigrant and minority groups expected to adjust to Anglo-American culture as a prerequisite to acceptance and access to better education and jobs, as well as other opportunities (Pornsakulvanich, 2007). Assimilation has necessitated that minority groups give up their traditions and embrace Anglo-American, even if this translates to dropping much or their entire heritage. Sociological Theories on Existence of Racism The present sociological theories mainly center of elaborating the existence of racism, especially institutional racism. The major sociological perspectives include symbolic interaction theory, functionalist theory, and conflict theory each bearing its own explanation on the phenomenon of racism. This assertion can be problematic in answering the question on how racism and discrimination contribute positively to the society. Sociologists who subscribe to functionalist view stipulate that racism and discrimination do contribute positively to the society, especially when it comes to serving the dominant group to discriminate against the subordinate groups (Marger, 2012). Holding racist views can profit those seeking to deny rights and privileges to persons they perceive to be inferior to them. In the long run, racism harms the society. Conflict theory perspective examines the multiple struggles between the white ruling class and ethnic and racial minorities, especially when the dominant group perceives to face a threat from a minority group. Feminist sociologist Patricia Hill Collins instituted intersection theory that implies that individuals cannot disconnect the effects of class, race, sexual orientation, and gender, as well as other attributes. Numerous layers of disadvantages interplay to generate the way that individuals create race. For instance, in understanding prejudice, individuals must comprehend that prejudice experienced by a White woman owing to her gender can be very different from the layered prejudice of a poor Asian woman bombarded by stereotypes connected to being poor, being a woman, and her ethnic status. Symbolic interaction theory stipulates that race and ethnicity avail powerful symbols as sources of identity. Indeed, some interactions propose that they symbols of the race itself can be blamed for racism. Herbert Blumer (1958) proposed that racial prejudice may be shaped via interactions between members of the dominant group, whereby without the interactions members of the dominant group would not possess racist views (Marger, 2012). The interactions play a critical part in shaping an abstract picture of the subordinate group, which enables the dominant group to support its perceptions on the subordinate group. Social Identity theory Social identity theory can be employed in the analysis of individual perspectives, intergroup relations, and group structure and process. Social identity theory explores processes of categorization, construction of stereotypical views, and categorization, whereby individuals seeks to identity with groups of which they consider they are members and pursue to construct a positive view of self grounded on advantageous intergroup comparisons. Subjectively, positive comparisons are induced by the urge to see self positively relative to others (Pornsakulvanich, 2007). Social identity theory is essential in analyzing the relationship between ethnic identity and attitude toward out-groups, as well as the intersection of gender and race relative to social identity. The similarities and differences in traditions of Asian Americans with the rest of Asians Asian-Americans constitute individuals from six major countries, namely: China, Japan, Korea, India, Philippines, and Vietnam. Asians have become the biggest group of new arrivals with the U.S., whereby in 2010, 36% of new immigrant were Asians while Hispanics accounted for 31%. If the trends continue, Asian Americans will play an enhanced role in shaping American society. Studies indicated that, across the board, Asian-Americans are more satisfied relative to any other Americans with their lives, direction of the country, and finances. Asian-Americans also place significant emphasis on family, traditional marriage, besides having a strong work ethic. Asian Americans mirror a significant diversity of cultures and backgrounds. Asian immigrants arrived in the U.S. at diverse times and motivated by different reasons. The initial Asian immigrants who arrived in the U.S. were Chinese in the mid-19th century. Japanese Americans succeeded in bringing their wives and families, which enabled them to produce second and third generation Japanese Americans at a faster rate than Chinese.  Majority of Asian immigrants arrived in the U.S. in search of better economic opportunities; nevertheless, other immigrants such as Vietnamese immigrants arrived as political refugees or asylum seekers. Since Chinese men lacked adequate funds to return to China or bring their families to America, they remained culturally and physically segregated in Chinatowns of large cities. Asian Americans have been subject to a fair share of racial prejudice. This stereotype is usually employed to minority groups perceived to attain significant professional, educations, and socioeconomic levels devoid of challenging the underlying establishment (Myers, 2003). The similarities and differences in traditions of Hispanics in America The terms Hispanic or Latino employed to categorize the culture persist to trigger contention given the former implies linkage to ancient Spain, as well as its language while the latter represents a nationality of Latin America. It is complex to make assumptions centering on Latino given that they represent a mix of racial and ethnic lines from 22 different countries of origin. The population manifests distinct demographic characteristics and levels of acculturation coupled with cultural background and history. Hispanics is independent of race and represents the only ethnic category, rather than racial category officially collated by the U.S. Census Bureau. Black Hispanics account for about 2.5% of the whole Hispanic population within the U.S. Majority of Black Hispanics come from Venezuelan, Colombian, Puerto Rican, Haitian, and Dominican populations (Mirowsky & Ross, 1980). The core aspects that differentiate Black Hispanics from African Americans encompass their mother tongue Spanish, as well as culture. Black Hispanics manifest a multi-faceted cultural and racial identity, which sets them apart from the broad racial and ethnic range. Hispanic Americans manifest a broad array of backgrounds and nationalities. The U.S. Census report that lose to 75% of the respondents who identity as Hispanic are mainly Puerto Rican, Mexican, or Cuban origin. The U.S. Census outlines that Hispanic or “Latino” represents individuals of Puerto Rican, Mexican, Cuban, Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin irrespective of race. Disagreement has arisen based on the question on whether Hispanic or Latino is the accurate term to represent such a diverse group and whether it would be appropriate for individuals to refer to themselves based on the origin such as Mexican American or Dominican American (Menifield, 2001). Hispanics have witnessed significant changes in family patterns accompanied by rapid growth in immigration, as well as concomitant changes within the racial and ethnic composition of the U.S. population. Hispanic families typified by familism or strong commitment to family life. This is a multi-dimensional concept detailing a number of features including behavioral dimension, attitudinal dimensional, and a structural/demographic dimension (Menifield, 2001). The similarities between the Hispanics do not make them alike. Although, Spanish language features across the constituents, the population manifests diverse make-up, with different cultures, traditions, and cuisine. Studies done on Hispanics mostly reflect the experience of Mexicans who constitute over 60% of the total; nevertheless, the differences among Hispanics are salient based on several ways. First, non-Mexicans are growing at a fast rate. During the 1990, only three Hispanic groups possessed more than one million members (Cuban, Mexican, and Puerto Rican) the 2010 Census has revealed 3 more groups (Guatemalans, Salvadorans, and Dominicans). Second, some groups such as Cuban and Puerto Ricans earn more (Argentineans and Venezuelans earn much more). Largely, South Americans possess higher levels of education and only Central Americans and Dominicans match the profile of Mexicans. Third, the groups also manifest diverse degrees and trends in separation from non-Hispanics, whereby South Americans are usually less segregated compared to Mexicans while Central Americans and Dominicans remain highly segregated. How the traditions of Mexican Americans differ with the rest of South Americans This section compares the experiences of Mexican Americans and Cuban Americans. Mexican Americans constitute the biggest Hispanic subgroup and also the oldest. The length of Mexico’s shared border with the U.S. has eased immigration compared to other immigrant groups. Cuban Americans for the second biggest Hispanic subgroup and their history in the U.S. is diverse from that of Mexican Americans. The prominent wave of Cuban immigration to the U.S. started at the height of communism. Mexican Americans, especially those in the U.S. illegally, are at the center of nation debate centering on immigration (Perez & Hirschman, 2009). One can observe that no other minority group (apart from Chinese) has immigrated to the U.S. at an environment of illegality. Mexican immigrants experienced comparatively low rates of economic and civil assimilation, which set them apart from other immigrants. The slow rates of economic and civil assimilation set Mexicans apart from the rest of the other immigrants, and may mirror the fact that the significant number of Mexicans immigrants residing within the U.S. illegally enjoys few opportunities to advance themselves along such dimensions. Mexican American is frequently the target of stereotyping, discrimination, and racism irrespective of the status of legal or illegal immigrants, partly owing to the high population number (Perez & Hirschman, 2009). In contrast, Cuban Americans are frequently viewed as a model minority group. Majority of Cuban enjoyed higher socioeconomic status when they arrived in the U.S., and their anti-communist agenda was an added advantage as immigrants in the U.S. For instance, in South Florida, Cuban Americans are active in local politics and professional life. In the same way as Asian Americans, the notion of model minority can mask the issue of powerlessness that most minority groups encounters in the U.S. society. Conclusion The term “race” mainly refers to distinctions drawn from physical appearance, while ethnicity represents the distinctions made based on language, national origin, religion, food, as well as other cultural markets. Ethnic groups possess consciousness of their shared norms, practices, and customs and does not exist merely because of the shared national or cultural bond, but rather develop based on distinct social and historical experiences that shape the basis of the group’s ethnic identity. Ethnic minority families may be burdened with negative social identities, which may be exacerbated by erroneous descriptions, categorization, and labeling. Minority groups are said to possess an unequal or limited access to power within the society. Inequality forms part of the dimensions of social identity given that, members of ethnic minority groups can be singled out treated unequally on the grounds of their cultural or physical differences from the dominant group. References Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46 (1): 5-68. Healey, J. F. (2014). Diversity and Society: Race, Ethinicity and Gender, 4th edition. London: Sage. Marger, M. N. (2012). Race & ethnic relations: American and global perspectives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Menifield, C. (2001). Representation of minority groups in the US: Implications for the twenty-first century. Texas, TX: Austin & Winfield. Mirowsky, J. & Ross, C. E. (1980). Minority status, ethnic culture, and distress: A comparison of blacks, whites, Mexicans, and Mexican Americans. American Journal of Sociology, 86 (3): 479-495. Myers, J. P. (2003). Dominant-minority relations in America: Linking personal history with the convergence in the world. New Jersey, NJ: Allyn & Bacon. Perez, A. D. & Hirschman, C. (2009). The changing racial and ethnic composition of the US population: Emerging American identities. Population and Development Review, 35 (1): 1-51. Pornsakulvanich, V. (2007). Television portrayals of ethnic minorities in the United States: The analysis of individual differences, media use, and group identity and vitality. ABAC Journal, 27 (3): 22-28. Stone, J. (1974). American pluralism: A study of minority groups and social theory by William M. Newman. American Journal of Sociology, 80 (3): 767-769. United States Census (2012). Most Children younger than age 1 are minorities, Census Bureau Reports. U.S. department of Commerce. 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