Effect Of Poverty On The Developmental Outcomes Of Children - Research Paper Example

Effect Of Poverty On The Developmental Outcomes Of Children Literature Review A lot of research has been conducted in the past regarding the issue of effects of poverty on the developmental outcomes of children with challenging behaviors. Last decade has seen 35.9 million Americans including lived in poverty of which 13 million were only children (de Leon, 2004, p.A1). Children living in poverty raise issues that cannot be ignored in today’s society. Bezruchka (2007) found that despite being the richest country, Americans rank highest in child poverty rates. Overcoming child poverty would take enormous energy and strength from everyone in the United States. The thing that most people overlook is the insufficient nutrition along with unemployment and housing that is overcrowded (Arloc, 1997). Some people like to believe that these children do not exist and everyone is happy and carefree. When in most cases there could be a child living in poverty next door. Weill (1991, p.337) asserts that in the early history of American nation, especially since Great Depression, a large portion of American population saw hard times. He states that nearly 13 million American children are poor. Arloc (1997) maintains that there are many low-income people in the United States; a huge number of them are children. Macionis (2006, p.216) concluded that in 2003, the government classified 12.5 percent of the U.S. population as poor which makes 35.9 million of men, women and children. A person being poor is another word for a person being in poverty. Seccombe (2002) asserts that poverty can be defined as having an inadequate income that can make a family stay “below the poverty line”. Research also suggests that the home environment can also add to the poverty issue because, most homes that look in disrepair mean that the family living inside might not have the income to fix things. When a family is in the poverty zone they feel bad and inadequate which can make them unwilling to ask for help (Brooks-Gunn & Duncan, 1997). This can be harmful to the children because they do not have a say when the adults need help. Devasundaram (2010) states that poverty is an unkind and brutal way for our children to live. It manifests in physical, emotional and social ways. McLoyd (1990) suggests that impoverished children have social, emotional and behavioral problems due to poor health and serious mental health problems stemming from the persistent poverty level in which they live. Aber and Bennett (1997) concluded that serious health problems come along with the territory such as preventable diseases like Influenza, Measles, Malnutrition and AIDS due to lack of proper education and poor or no health care at all. Public assistance offered in most states does not begin to cover all that our children need to live a lifestyle that would be suitable. Hence, poverty stricken children, especially those with challenging behaviors, show affected developmental outcome which affects their overall personality, and this is the thesis statement of the research. Poverty Line Flik and Praag (1991) defined subjective poverty line. In the United States, poverty is concretely defined in dollar figures by the Social Security Administration. By determining the amount of money needed to survive on food, and then multiplying that number by three, the Social Security Administration sets the poverty line. For example, if the SSA decided that the amount of money needed to sustain a survivable diet during a year was $4,000, then it would set the poverty line at $12,000. Thus, any individuals whose income was less than this amount for a year would be considered to be living in poverty. According to Flik and Praag (1991), the poverty line is essential for determining who receives welfare benefits in this country. Poverty does not seem to be an evenly distributed social problem. In America, African Americans and Latinos have, by far, the largest poverty rate. Many factors such as poor wages for women and the increase of single-woman parented families have caused an increase in the percentage of women among the poor. Also in a high percentage are children. The elderly, however, fill a much smaller percentage as they receive such benefits as social security. Facts and Figures Researchers have studied the facts and figures regarding how much the poverty has inflicted its impacts upon children. Fass and Cauthen (2006) found that there are 1.3 million more children living in poverty today than in 2000 despite the indications of economic recovery and growth. They assert that most people want to believe that since the economy is growing, the poverty level is dropping, but it is not so. There are more jobs and higher paying jobs for sure but these require training which is costly. According to them, the other thing to remember is that when wages go up the merchandise goes up also. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the percent of Americans under the poverty level has steadily dropped from 15.1 percent in 1993 to 11.8 percent in 1999 (U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P60-210). As of now there are over 28 million children living below the federal poverty level, which is $20,650 per year for a family of four, according to Douglas-Hall, Koball and Chau (2006). The number of children in poverty situations fluctuated however, rising drastically between 2000 and 2005, despite economic recovery indications (Henderson, 2006). There are so many hardships faced by children such as food insecurity, lack of affordable housing as well as lack of health insurance (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor & Lee, 2005). Most of these children live with parents who work however, lack of higher wages and unstable situations with employment contribute to families struggling to make ends meet. Risk Factors Associated with Poverty Health and nutrition. Aber and Bennett (1997) found that a child in poorer family can also have poor health due to inadequate healthcare and routine visits. Lower income families try to buy enough food for everyone but, this does not always carry the vitamins and nutrients a growing child needs. A number of nutritious meals takes time to prepare and when guardians work all day they probably do not feel like or have time to cook a full course meal. For example, a single mother works in a pizza parlor to support her children, every night the owner lets her take a free pizza home, this is good to eat but does not supply the everyday nutrients a child needs. A child who does not get adequate nutrition can suffer academically. McLoyd (1990) asserts that healthcare is a growing concern for children because most people cannot afford coverage and sometimes make too much for programs like the medical card. Without the right type of medical visits the child will suffer. Sicknesses like colds or the common flu can go undiagnosed which if bad enough can lead to serious health problems. Difficulties like Attention Deficit Disorder also known as ADD, which can be easily diagnosed by a doctor, can be mistaken for misbehavior. Most parents without coverage wait until it is absolutely necessary to take the child to a doctor, which at time can be damaging. Some people would think that low-income children would not have weight issues but, they do, due to unhealthy eating habits. Violence. Hsieh and Pugh (1993, p. 182) suggest that poverty causes the development of violent behavior in children. Because children have to fend for themselves, some will go to any extent to get even the slightest amount of food. As a result of children going to any extent necessary to get food many of them are exploited into doing unethical things. Some children turn to prostitution to make a way for themselves in the world, and that is not the answer. Children may decide to turn to theft and in the end violence to make it through life. Depression. Samaan (2000) concluded that because of poverty children have higher chances of going through chronic depression in their lives. Disease is also likely to spread in the environment because the children may not be fully educated about keeping themselves safe in certain environments and in certain situations. Criminal behavior. Hsieh and Pugh (1993) assert that criminal behavior is on the increase from children and teens born to poverty stricken families. Abuse, neglect, little or no education, and lack of adequate paying jobs are contributing factors to this detriment. When children see that the local drug dealer can make more money in one day than their own parents can make in a month of hard work they will tend to lean toward the “easy way out”. If the parents are not around to give positive reinforcement to their children they may turn to gangs in order to get the attention they lack at home which in turn contributes to violent behavior and not only drug distribution but also drug abuse. With that being said children of poverty are more likely to suffer young and violent deaths due to the poor judgment and decision making of the child (Williams, Sawyer & Wahlstrom, 2005). Highly mobile and homeless. Masten et al. (1998) found that while the number of American children who live in low-income families is growing, their residence is also changing at the same time. Children in low-income families are twice as likely to have faced moving in the previous year, compared to children in higher іncome families. Two-thіrds of chіldren іn low-іncome famіlіes lіve іn the West or the South, whіch іs a substantіal іncrease from a decade ago. Some of the change іn the West іs fueled by іmmіgratіon- thіrty seven percent of chіldren of recent іmmіgratіons lіve there. Whіle the majorіty of the chіldren іn low-іncome famіlіes move wіthіn theіr regіon, those who do swіtch regіons wіll more than lіkely end up іn the South. Forty-fіve percent of those who moved to a dіfferent regіon dіd so for a better job, whіle those who moved wіthіn theіr region reported doіng so for better housіng. Іn the South and the West low-іncome chіldren are located maіnly іn rural areas, whіle those who lіve іn the Northeast and the Mіdwest tend to lіve іn urban areas. Reasons for Child Poverty Bradbury and Janti (1999) studied the reasons of poverty in children in industrialized nations. They assert that many people believe that poverty is caused by a personal choice. This, however, is a common misconception. Rather than something that a person chooses, it seems as if poverty is more of a lifestyle that one is born into. When a person is brought into this world they are given certain privileges based on their status in society. A child, that is born to a middle class white family with two parents, will most likely live a fairly privileged childhood. He will receive adequate financial support from its parents. Just as important, he will be given educational opportunities which most poor children do not afford. On the other hand, a child who is brought into the world as the third child of a poor African American single mother has the cards all stacked against it, according to Gunderson and Ziliak (2004). Statistically, this child will be deprived of the opportunities that were given to the middle class child. The hardships of living in a centralized urban area with a low-income support system do nothing but handicap the child. Although this child will still be able to attend public schools, he is still more likely to be unsuccessful in the educational situation due to many of the hardships of the child’s life. There is a much smaller chance that this child will be able to continue its education beyond high school and into college, thus enabling him to earn more money in the future. Child poverty is steadily rising for a lot of reasons. Insufficient parental care. Hashima and Amato (2008) have concluded in their research that the overall reason for child poverty is because parents aren’t able to take proper care for their off spring. Parents sometimes lose jobs and cannot adequately take care of their kids and the children are left to fend for themselves. Parental involvement is one of the keys to raising a successful child. More parents need to take the initiative to help foster better moral standards that they hold their children accountable for. Poor education. Sorensen and Zibman (2000) found that inappropriate education leads to poverty because it leads to the inability to acquire good jobs in the future. Researchers argue that the world is overpopulated and we do not have the resources to support the world’s needy children. Lack of ambition. Research also states that people are poor and destitute due to their own lack of ambition and are not worthy of our attention. They should not be considered for welfare or any other program that may be a benefit to the situation that they are in to help them out of a vicious cycle of poverty. This is shown by the government cutting the spending for welfare and poverty programs. In September of 1996 a welfare reform bill cut $60 billion in aid to poor families within a period of six years (Smeeding, 2004). It is estimated that this puts one million more children into poverty. Educational Outcomes for Students Living in Poverty Social and emotional problems at school. McLoyd (1990) extensively studied the social and emotional problems that poor children face at school, and have concluded that children who live in poverty endure hardships in academics, social problems and sometimes physical problems. They assert that children who live in low-income homes are more likely to have problems in school, making friends and staying healthy. When children from lower income families attend school they can be ridiculed due to them not having the best clothes or the right supplies. This takes a toll on their self-esteem and socializing, the children will continue to be nervous about these things. The grades will sometimes show when a child has esteem issues or is too nervous to pay attention. Academic difficulties. Douglas-Hall, Koball and Chau (2006) assert that poor children spend harder time in school than their rich peers. They conclude that the rising figure of poor students would make it very difficult for districts to avoid the sanctions under No Child Left Behind Act. It is a proven fact that children born into poverty situations very rarely if ever continue their educations past high school if they make it that far. Uneducated and under-educated children find it difficult to cope in society and tend to turn to gangs, drugs and crime as a means of making money. It is up to us as an overall community to help those less fortunate than ourselves. Recommendations As you can see, poverty is a continuous cycle that is hard to escape. Poverty stretches from generation to generation. Because of this fact, it becomes increasingly necessary for American society to develop solutions to this poverty problem. Taking care of children. Soss et al. (2001) concluded in their research that the number of children in poverty would fall if people would recognize the troubles in their own back yards. They maintain that people tend to help children in other countries rather than help their own. For example, there are many commercials about saving the children from disease and famine in other countries while the very own children are being neglected. There are people who make millions from making movies or music and do not help the children in the U.S. They would rather have the publicity from adopting a child or donating money to children in another country. Health and welfare programs. Programs such as Medicaid and State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) made a drastic improvement upon poverty ratings in children because healthcare was made affordable. According to Pelton (1989), these are good things, but there are some problems with the plans and people do not qualify. Some medications are not approved to be covered along with needing tests done that have to wait for approval, according to Harms (2007). There are cracks in the system as well, because the Department of Health and Human Resources does not take into the account the medicines family members are on and how much out-of-pocket cost they are covering. There are many people who go to welfare for assistance who truly need help for a short time while they get back on their feet. There are also people who are temporarily disabled, parents who have lost their counterpart and have nowhere else to turn for financial help, or other unforeseen circumstances, these are the people who need these types of assistance. However, for the people who take advantage of these systems they make things harder for the people who need help. Low-income families with children need these services in order to survive; some make it difficult for them. Without the help from agencies child poverty would continue to rise drastically (Lichter & Crowley, 2004). Child poverty in the United States is high right now but it is impossible to guess how high the rates would be without programs like TANF, Medicaid, Medicare, and food stamps. Low-income children would be unhealthy and without the minimal requirements needed to sustain normal life. Although it is impossible to eliminate poverty from our society, social welfare programs, if implemented properly, could vastly reduce the level of poverty. Increasing the wages. Currently, a large amount of those under the poverty line are unemployed persons and those persons who receive too little compensation for their work. One way to eliminate these numbers would be to increase the minimum wage. Far too many people in this country are trying to support children on minimum wage. Unfortunately, that cannot be successfully done. In Rights and Wrongs of Welfare Reform: A Feminist Approach, Diana Pearce states that many people trying to get out of welfare and enter the workforce and stopped due to “severe problems…including low wages, inadequate child care, and a lack of health care benefits” (p. 135). Pierce makes a valid argument. Until the private sector is able to provide ample compensation and benefits, single parents will not want to leave the welfare program. Lack of sufficient day care also prevents these people from going to work. This situation is in need of reform. In fact, welfare reform legislation is needed nationwide to help solve the problem of poverty. Evidence that such reform would help can be seen in Jean Oggins’ study- Welfare Reform Sanctions and Financial Strain in a Food-Pantry Sample. Her study mentions instances such as that in Broome County, New York, where welfare reform legislation led to a 20-25% increase in the number of county welfare recipients that are employed over each of the next few years (Oggins, as cited in Lee, Slack & Lewis, 2004). This shows that reform of the social welfare programs does indeed help in the reduction of the poverty level. Several polіcy approaches could help low-іncome parents meet the needs of theіr chіldren, іncludіng a raіse іn mіnіmum wage, expansіon of the federal Earned Іncome Tax Credіt, a decreased payroll tax burden on low-wage workers, and health іnsurance for workіng parents. When low famіly іncomes compromіse chіld development we all pay the prіce іn hіgher costs for specіal educatіon and mental and physіcal health servіces, lower levels of educatіonal achіevement, and a less prepared work force. Well-regulated pre-schools. Research also suggests that although chіld care fundіng has іncreased іn the years sіnce welfare reform, efforts are stіll needed to іmprove the qualіty and number of optіons avaіlable to low-іncome famіlіes and to contіnue and extend chіld care subsidies. One avenue to achіeve thіs would be to іncrease the number of and access to hіgh-qualіty, well-regulated preschools. Increase in media coverage. In Media Images of the Poor, Heather Bullock (2006) argues that the poor are often times invisible in our society. She believes that a social problem of the magnitude of poverty must be discussed publicly on a regular basis. Her focus is on the status of poverty in the media. In her study, she found that between 1981 and 1986 and average of 32 stories per year were focused on poverty. For such a wide scale problem in our society, this is not ample coverage. Bullock argues that more media coverage of poverty in our society would lead to a better understanding of the problem by the general public. Thus, a higher level of support for federal welfare programs could arise (Bullock, 2006, p. 232-233). News on television seems more focused on crime, scandals, and sports. Perhaps, as Bullock states, an increase in media coverage of poverty and social welfare could aid in the process. A Real-Life Example In an interview with a single mother of three, many details of living in poverty came to light which brings a more human aspect to the increasing rise in poverty levels. “I have to rely on my parents to pay my bills”, says Julie Kemp. Her gas bill for instance comes to a monthly balance for heating at $310.00 while she has a weekly income of only$157.00 which is supposed to support her and her children. Heat is a vital asset in her household as her 7 year old daughter suffers with joint, a problem that has plagued her since birth. She does not get any extra help for her daughter’s condition which makes her situation even more unbearable. Things that an ordinary person takes for granted, like simply going to the grocery store to shop, becomes a major issue for her. She is unable to shop at the major store chains; instead, she must rely on discount stores just to save money. If her children need clothes, they come from a charity shop. Summary The literature review given above analyzes different research papers and studies conducted by scholars and researchers about poverty and its effects in children with challenging behaviors. Researchers have suggested that poverty rate is becoming higher with time in the United States and the tragedy is that children are very much at the risk of getting badly affected by poverty. Studies have been conducted to show the statistics, facts and figures. Research also reveals risk factors associated with child poverty, and causes and effects of child poverty have been discussed in detail by many researchers. Scholars have also made precious recommendations that help in countering child poverty. Application Іt іs up to the people of the Unіted States to take a stand agaіnst poverty and quіt thіnkіng of іt as somethіng that does not exіst іn our country. Poverty іs very real іn the Unіted States, as thіs country has the worst poverty rate of all the іndustrіalіzed natіons. With child poverty being one of the biggest issues in the world it is growing in enormous proportions. Children are dying every day and this seems endless. Whatever the cause may be for child poverty, be it parents, education, jobs, or overpopulation this is an issue that needs to be addressed more aggressively. Even with all the great help the world is doing to stop this dilemma a lot more work is needed to effectively eliminate this problem. Even though there have been improvements to the programs which help children in poverty there is still a long way to go. Sometimes children fall through the cracks because they are right on the cusp and do not qualify for government assistance or have enough income or medical coverage. Policies need to be changed and assistance groups should look over qualifications better. People in the United States need to take better care of their own and worry less about what is going on in other countries. When is enough, enough? How much more suffering do the children in our society have to endure before changes can be made to better their lives? Things we take for granted; watching television, seeing a doctor when you are sick, having school supplies or on a much simpler level, having a decent meal, are sheer luxuries to them. Most of those in poverty are not looking for a hand-out; they are looking for away out. Changes have to be made in order for those impoverished in our society to be able to break the chains that bind them to the lifestyle in which they do not want to be accustomed to. We have to work together to help the children in need, to make a difference in the lives of our future and the future of those to come. With better budgeting and a system of compromise that works we can make a difference in the lives of young children and their families who struggle daily. Children should not have to worry about where their next meal will be coming from; they should not have to worry if they will have a roof over their head when they get home from school, if they have a chance to go to school. Working should be a way that our teens earn extra money for social events or a new outfit they like not a means of helping to provide for their families. Children grow up quick enough in this day and age. Let us help them to be kids again. References Aber, J.L. & Bennett, N.G. (1997). The effects of poverty on child health and development. Annu Rev Public Health, 18, pp. 463-483. Arloc, S. (1997). Poverty matters: the cost of child poverty in America. CDF Publications. Retrieved September 30, 2010, from http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED417867&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED417867 Bezruchka, S. (2007, April 29). Give U.S. Children Our Best; Poor Report Card On Child Health Should Be Our Call To Action: [FINAL Edition]. Retrieved from Business Dateline (Document ID: 1262409031) Bradbury, B. & Janti, M. (1999). Child poverty across industrialized nations. Innocenti Occasional Papers: Economic and Social Policy Series no.71. Retrieved September 30, 2010, from http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Child_poverty_across_industrialized_nations.pdf Brooks-Gunn, J. & Duncan, G.J. (1997). The effects of poverty on children. Children and Poverty, 7(2), pp. 55-71. Bullock, H.E. (2006). Attributions for poverty: a comparison of middle-class and welfare recipient attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29(10), pp. 2059-2082. de Leon, V. (2004, October 14). Safety net for poor unravels; poverty is increasing, but problem; often overlooked in political debate: [ONE ZONE ONLY Edition 1]. Spokesman Review. Retrieved from Business Dateline (Document ID: 712818011) DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B.D., & Lee, C.H. (2005). Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2004. Retrieved October 1, 2010, from http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/p60-229.pdf Devasundaram, A. (2010). Children of the poor. The Ecumenical Review, 31(3), pp. 241-246. Douglas-Hall, A., Koball, H., & Chau, M. (2006). The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Library of Economics and Liberty. Fass, S. & Cauthen, N.K. (2006). Who are America’s Poor Children? Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_684.html Flik, R.J. & Praag, B. (1991). Subjective poverty line definitions. De Economist, 139(3), pp. 311-330. Gunderson, C., & Ziliak, J. (2004). Poverty and macroeconomic performance across space, race, and family structure. Demography, 41, pp. 61-86. Harms, W. (2007). Poverty definition flawed, more accurate measure needed. Chicago Chronicle, pp. 14-17. Hashima, P.Y. & Amato, P.R. (2008). Poverty, social support, and parental behavior. Child Development, 65(2), pp. 394-403. Henderson, H. (2006). The Politics of Money. Retrieved October 1, 2010, from http://www.hazelhenderson.com/editorials/politics_of_money.html Hsieh, C. & Pugh, M.D. (1993). Poverty, income inequality, and violent crime: a meta-analysis of recent aggregate data studies. Criminal Justice Review, 18(2), pp. 182-190. Lee, B.J., Slack, K.S., & Lewis, D.A. (2004). Are welfare sanctions working as intended? welfare receipt, work activity, and material hardship among TANF-recipient families. The Social Service Review, 78(3), pp. 370-403. Lichter, D.T., & Crowley, M. (2004). Welfare reform and child poverty: effects of maternal employment, marriage, and cohabitation. Social Science Research, 33, pp. 385-408. Macionis, J. (2006). Society: The Basics (8th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Masten, A.S., Sesma, A., Si-Aser, R., Lawrence, C., Miliotis, D., & Dionne, J.A. (1998). Educational risks for children experiencing homelessness. Journal of School Psychology, 35(1), pp. 27-46. McLoyd, V.C. (1990). The Impact of economic hardship on black families and children: psychological distress, parenting, and socioemotional development. Child Development, 61(2), pp. 311-346. Pelton, L.H. (1989). For Reasons of Poverty: A Critical Analysis of the Public Child Welfare System in the United States. New York, NY: Praeger. Samaan, R.A. (2000). The influences of race, ethnicity, and poverty on the mental health of children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 11(1), pp. 100-110. Seccombe, K. (2002). “Beating the odds” versus “changing the odds”: poverty, resilience, and family policy. Journal of Marriage and Family, 64(2), pp. 384-394. Smeeding, T.M. (2004). Public policy, economic inequality, and poverty: the United States in comparative perspective. Inequality and American Politics Conference, Maxwell School, Syracuse University, February 20. Sorensen, E. & Zibman, C. (2000). Child support offers some protection against poverty. Urban Institute. Retrieved September 30, 2010, from http://www.urban.org/publications/309440.html Soss, J., Schram, S.F., Vartanian, T.P., & O’Brien, E. (2001). Setting the terms of relief: explaining state policy choices in the devolution revolution. American Journal of Political Science, 45(2), pp. 378-395 Weill, J.D. (1991). Child poverty in America. HeinOnline. Retrieved September 30, 2010, from http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/clear25&div=50&id=&page= Williams, B.K., Sawyer, S.C., & Wahlstrom, C.M. (2005). Marriages, Families, and Intimate Relationships: A Practical Introduction. USA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon. Read More