Using Behavioral Economics to Understand Addictive Behavior - Essay Example

Reflection Reflection Chapter Using Behavioral Economics to Understand Addictive Behavior This chapter provides valuable insights into the workings of the mind the dynamics that define decision-making. More importantly, there is a lot to be learned from the author’s attempt to rationalise addiction by using cognitive and behavioral theories. Although I support the author’s claim that behavioral economics can be used to explain addictions and poor decision-making, I oppose the inference that addiction is strictly a failure in decision-making (Goldstein, 2014). Theoretical and practical knowledge shows that this is too general a statement to be considered valid. Research has shown that there is a genetic dimension to addiction that not only contributes to the development of addictions but also makes it difficult to overcome it. In such cases, poor decision-making cannot be used as the only logic for the development of and difficulty in mitigating addictions. Although the delay discounting theory is relevant in rationalising decision-making and the development of addictions, I think that the dual decision model is more suitable in this context. The delay discounting concept seems to ignore the fact that while all human beings are assumed to be rational, not all thinking is rational. For example, mentally ill people would not fit the delay discounting method because, although they tend to act out of impulse, they usually do not know that they are acting out of impulse (Levy, 2013). This differs from rational people who understand that they can choose to have low or high discount rate and consciously opt for either. On other hand, the dual decision model takes this into account by classifying decision-making as either conscious or unconscious. This includes all forms of decision-making, whether rational or irrational. Chapter 2: Decision Biases: A Primer on Behavioral Economics From this chapter, I have learned the different biases involved in decision-making and how they affect short and long-term implications of human thinking. Interestingly, while there are several decision biases, they all stem from the two systems of thinking: system 1 and system 2. This can be rationalized by emphasizing that cognitive and behavioral activities are either conscious or unconscious (Brownell & Gold, 2012). As a consequence, all types of bias must also originate from these two premises. Some biases, such as narrative and confirmation, are unconscious. Others, such as the Halo Effect, are conscious. The most important aspect of this chapter is its contribution to efforts to avoid bias. As the chapter progresses, it becomes clear that biases are the biggest obstacle to rational and beneficial thinking. The chapter also shows that it is impossible to eliminate bias. The best that we can do, as humans, is to limit them so that they have as little effect on our decision-making as possible. Personally, I am a regular victim of the Halo Effect and the confirmation bias. Through training and practice, biases can be significantly reduced to improve both the efficiency and effectiveness of decision-making (Reisberg, 2013). The most important lesson that can be taken from this chapter is awareness of ignorance with the intention of expanding knowledge. For example, in a classroom setting, a bright student might refuse to share vital insight on a particular subject with an average student because he does not like him. In the long-term, this affects the performance of the whole class. Chapter 3: Definition and the Nature of Addiction This chapter has presented facts that explain what an addiction is and how it develops. The features of addiction prove that it is a sign of mental and emotional weakness. Philosophically, addictions can be considered to be ethically and morally wrong because they breach the rules of acceptable conduct. Addiction can also be linked to emotional and mental weaknesses because it symbolises an inability to resist (Wendel, 2013). Resistance is what separates failures from successes; it also incorporates concepts of survivability and humanity. While exploring the subject of addiction, it is worth considering its relationship with reason. Addicts are usually aware that they have developed a habit that they cannot quit. Studies have shown that a majority of people know when they are becoming addicted to anything. However, they lack the mental capacity to stop the process. As a result, they must be assisted to overcome their addictions. The author has also shown, through the discussions on dopamine, that the human brain is open to manipulation by any substance or activity. The brain’s release of dopamine to create pleasurable sensations is involuntary because it is a “forced” action (Zamir & Teichman, 2014). On the other hand, the first few instances in which an individual engages in addictive indulgences are often voluntary and emotive, not reflective. In this respect, addiction can be termed as a by-product of the affective system and poor decision-making that is motivated by instant gratification. The author has, once again, demonstrated the power of the affective system in guiding human activity and influencing decision-making. Chapter 4: Definition and Functions of Emotions Alongside reason, emotion is the basis of human existence. This chapter provides a comprehensive assessment of the types and impacts of emotions. Since emotions reflect mental processes and states, they can be used to understand the psychological geneses of cognitive and behavioral activities. For example, anger is triggered by the psychological interpretation of threat while happiness is inspired by a mental understanding of benevolence and goodwill (Levy, 2013). Emotions have a huge bearing on reason, which explains why the author thinks that we should not allow ourselves to think that our emotional disposition is completely beyond our control. As Viktor Frankl stated, “everything can be taken from a man but one thing, the last of human freedoms – to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances.” Frankl’s statement disproves the notion that behavior is wholly influenced by emotions and shows that reason is more powerful than emotions. If this were not the case, it would not make much sense to implore people to learn to control their emotions. In lieu of this, it is safe to say that with respect to superiority, logic is the most powerful human attribute (Brownell & Gold, 2012). Since human beings are naturally predisposed to maximizing pleasure and minimising displeasure, it is necessary to question where this trait derives from. Based on the evidence presented in this chapter and the insights acquired from past and current research, it is only rational to classify emotion as a system 1 decision system. Although it is possible to rein in emotions, it is mostly impulsive. Chapter 5: The Role of Emotion in Decision Making I found this chapter to be the most interesting in the whole book. The line between reason and emotion is often too blurred that very few people know when, at any one time, their actions are based emotions or reason. However, the author has provided an explicit explanation of the physiological foundations of emotions and reason and the distinctions between them. The reflective and affective systems – the products of these distinctions – are, therefore, according to this chapter, the difference between all logical and emotional states (Goldstein, 2014). This argument is valid because it has been proven in numerous studies examining the differences in individual cognitive and behavioral processes. Finding a balance between the reflective and affective systems of human activity is the basis of mental and physical health. In all cases where individuals’ physiological wellbeing is compromised, the diagnosis will lead to an imbalance between the reflective and affective systems. Considering the experiences I have had and the knowledge I have acquired during the coursework, I am very interested in the author’s assertion that people’s decisions involve both impulsive and reflective processes. The aspect of environmental influence is especially crucial because it is neither reflective nor affective, yet has a significant impact on both systems (Levy, 2013). This leads to question whether controlling our environments can have direct or indirect effects on our thinking and decision-making. Findings of past and current studies conducted on this phenomenon show that regulating our environment promotes or discourages reflective and affective systems, leading to either good or bad decision-making. Chapter 7: Choice over Time For most people, deciding between taking instant gratification and future satisfaction is often the most difficult decision they can make. In hindsight, however, it is obvious that human beings are driven by an immediacy that creates little value in terms of quality of life. As the author states, there are numerous environmental and individual factors that increase the likelihood of settling for temporal urges rather than sustainability (Levy, 2013). Affinity for instant gratification appears to be a fundamental human trait that can only be managed. For example, toddlers tend to do whatever they can to get what they want as soon as possible while most adults develop strategies that ensure they benefit in the least time possible. The link between emotions and instant gratification is particularly intriguing, especially because most of the reasons provided by the author as explanations for short-term thinking are essentially emotive. This leads to the debate concerning whether or not human needs are affective or reflective. In some respects, an inclination toward instant gratification is also associated with greed. From a philosophical standpoint, it could be argued that humans are naturally vulnerable to overconsumption, desire, and greed. When an individual cannot control when and how much of something is needed, then addiction sets in (Brownell & Gold, 2012). At this juncture, it is only fair to suggest a link between addictions and instant gratification. Realistically, the struggles involved in preferential decision-making can be considered to be part of life’s challenges because they are routine, permanent, complex, and interrelated. For example, spending is an inevitable exercise that has implications in multiple facets of an individual’s life. Chapter 9: Sources of Self-Control Failure in Relation to Sustained Dieting Behavior This chapter reads like an amalgamation of the previous chapters, especially in regards to the concepts of the reflective and affective systems and controlled and impulsive behavior. I found the construal level theory (CLT) to be very insightful, especially in terms of its applicability in different scenarios. In spite of its revealing nature, there are aspects of this theory which seem to have been poorly covered by the author, and which raise more questions over the self-control failure and the clash between reflective and affective systems (Levy, 2013). For example, the author claims, in a highly generalized statement, that since human beings regularly formulate long-term objectives theoretically, the result is that they are likely to be delayed until they evolve into short-term objectives, and they start contemplating them more seriously. This may not be entirely true because long-term goals also require short-term thinking. Long-term goals are not always “forgotten” as the author seems to suggest until they become short-term. A student who intends to graduate with a high grade point average (GPA) of 3.5 in a four-year course may set goals to be achieved in each of the years she studies for the program (Brownell & Gold, 2012). The scores attained in the last year of study will be just as important as those achieved in the first semester of the program because they all contribute towards the realization of the intended GPA. Consequently, although they may be short and long-term, they are intrinsically linked; the student cannot prefer one to the other since they are also interdependent. Anxiety and Decision Making Anxiety and fear play a frequent, pivotal role in decision-making. As an individual, I have on many occasions made decisions based on fear and anxiety. In the discussion on the theories of anxiety, the author cites genetics and other involuntary factors like parenting models, evolutionary perspectives, and negative childhood experiences. However, in the take-home lesson, the author states that anxiety is a “disorder of choice.” In fact, the author goes ahead to compare anxiety with alcohol and proposes that people should avoid making decisions when anxious until they are calm and can consider the ultimate objective (Ulman & Paul, 2013). Although the proposal is useful and valid, the assertion that anxiety is a self-engineered condition betrays three important theories associated with its origins (negative childhood experiences, evolutionary perspectives, and genetics) and put forward by the author. Like the discussion in chapter one, this debate reveals a contradiction on the author’s part that involves conveniently ignoring involuntary aspects of anxiety. Anxiety is a controllable condition but, much like emotions, seldom involves making rational choices over its existence. For example, some people suffer from panic attacks associated with anxiety that require external support (medication, moral support, etc.) to control (Heshmat, 2011). Based on the knowledge I have acquired during the program, I would say that the author has done well to establish a link between addiction – the subject of the book – and anxiety. The suggestion that attachment anxiety is positively correlated to drug addictions is not only genuine but also creates a research-rich topic for future investigation. Chapter 11: Using Self-control Strategies to Motivate Behavior Change Self-control strategies underlie any efforts to inspire behavior change. As is often stated, all behaviors originate from the individual; this explains why self-control strategies are more effective when they incorporate a personal approach. This view is also supported by the fact that no matter how common it may seem, every individual’s experience is always unique. Logically, it is only fair to formulate and implement self-control strategies using self-motivated methods (Miller, 2013). The development of self-control methods also tends to attract questions concerning the effectiveness of the different categories of those methods. In this chapter, the author presented five types of self-control strategies that can be employed in inducing behavior change: external strategies; cognitive strategies; emotion regulation; personal rules; and automatic self-control. Of the five approaches, cognitive strategies have been cited as the most effective. This is hardly surprising, considering that they deal with the most powerful component of self-control: the brain. At the core of self-control, strategy is immediate reward fuelled by desire. This is a common theme in all the chapters, but its remedies were yet to be discussed until chapter eleven. In the assessment of the different types of strategies used to reinforce self-control, the author portrays desire as a highly intricate concept that requires a multifaceted approach to effectively address (Cartwright, 2014). To achieve greater success in the quest to buttress self-control and arrest desire, it would be ideal to combine the theories articulated by the individual categories. For example, emotional regulation can be complimented by cognitive methods to create a more holistic and potent strategy. Reflection on the Movie Trainspotting (1996) Trainspotting is essentially a summary of all the book chapters used in writing this paper. The movie combines all the concepts discussed in the chapters and this paper, especially in its representation of the excesses, dangers, and implications associated with drug (heroin) addiction. The movie specifically alludes to the factors underlying addiction and their meaning in the wider theoretical context of drugs and their influence on society (Trainspotting, 1996). Elements of wishful thinking, naivety, the endowment effect, the halo effect, the impact of emotion on decision-making, temporal discounting, origins of self-control failure, anxiety and decision-making, and the nature of addiction are all present in the film. The protagonist’s (Renton) struggle with heroin addiction shows how drug addiction develops and why it is often so difficult to overcome. Renton and his colleagues drift in and out of their travails in ways that typify what millions of other people go through on a daily basis. In fact, the movie accurately captures and presents the real-life contexts of addiction as well as the theoretical aspects articulated in literature. The importance of self-control, mental strength, and individuality in preventing drug addiction is emphasized in the film (Trainspotting, 1996). Renton, for example, does not have sufficient self-control and mental willpower to face his addictive troubles and, eventually needs the support of his family to come to his senses. This shows, as revealed in the chapters, the importance of the environment (family and society) in preventing and fighting drug addiction. Other characters are not so lucky and succumb to the effects of addiction. How the Chapters shape my view on Addiction After reading the chapters, I am convinced that addiction is a choice condition. Unlike other conditions (e.g., diseases), addictions do not develop unconsciously. What is becoming clear is that a majority of individuals prefer to let their dispositions dominate their actions rather than taking more responsibility for their wellbeing. For example, although it is irrefutable that human beings are emotionally weak and vulnerable to mental lapses, such susceptibilities should not define one’s character. Addictions do not develop overnight; they are gradual and progressive. In addition, addictive behaviors usually involve more conscious than unconscious triggers. The difference between those who develop addictions and those who do not lies in the ability to harness emotional and psychological strength to exercise self-control (McCrady & Epstein, 2013). Addicts and non-addicts are more or less exposed to similar conditions throughout their lives, so the distinctions in their fates are certainly not as external as most people would like to believe. For example, drug addicts often recall when they started using drugs; they also remember at what stage they started becoming addicted to their habits. More importantly, they regret not stopping when they could because at some point they had the mental fortitude to halt their descent and embark on another path. The inability to resist desire cannot be attributed to environmental or genetic factors; it is merely a personal failure that requires self-oriented strategies to correct. In this regard, it is necessary to acknowledge the importance of personal development. Although some scholars claim that addiction is not specific to any individual, research shows that persons who are self-actualized are less likely to avoid and overcome addictions than those who are not (Diamond & Vartiainen, 2012). Self-actualization and personal growth have a positive correlation to mental strength, which is crucial in preventing and overcoming addictions and bad habits. For example, recent studies reveal that highly successful people who have an adequate understanding of their identity tend to complete drug rehabilitation programs faster than individuals who are yet to reconcile their identities with their environments and reality. The chapters have exposed the role of society in limiting and managing cases of addiction. This is explained by the fact that addition is a vice and, like all vices, it is frowned upon by society. Addiction is a moral and ethical subject as much as a legal one. In societies with sound moral and ethical principles, vices like addiction are mitigated by strong passive and active resistance (Lewis, 2012). This insinuates that individuals with a strong familial or societal moral and ethical background are less likely to “allow themselves” to become addicted to anything. With such a background, the thought of developing an addiction is met with critical and even shameful discourses that significantly lower the chances of addiction. This effect has been shown to exist, albeit at reduced levels, even in situations where individuals are out of their society’s sphere of influence. The chapters have also revealed another dynamic that tends to spark great debate in the public arena: the evolutionary nature of addictions. Although there are records of addictions between up to the 19th century, they are not comprehensive. The 20th and 21st centuries, the ages of modernisation, have been accompanied by an increase in the number of addictions recorded worldwide. In Chapter Three, the author states that some of the substances that are considered illegal in the current era were licensed drugs in the 19th century (Coon & Mitterer, 2013). This begs the question, what has changed and why? The answer can be found in the author’s next assertion that drug trade flourished in a universe in which mental hunger usurped physical hunger. A growing obsession with pleasure and emotional satisfaction – as opposed to individuals’ material needs and the emergence of bureaucratic organizations in Western societies, increased the demand for drugs. This explains why the 20th and the 21st centuries have witnessed the highest number of drug abuse and addiction cases. The pressures created by modernisation have directly and indirectly led to a dramatic increase in the availability of drugs, their subsequent abuse, and an increase in the number of addicts. High poverty levels, overpopulation, inadequate social amenities and basic utilities (e.g., mental health), work demands, weak social foundations, and educational duress have pushed young and old toward drug and substance abuse and created a situation whose gravity dwarfs the pre-20th century level (Granfield & Reinarman, 2014). Before the 20th century, drugs were used mainly casually. They were not magic bullets to problems and usage was not punctuated by stringent rules and monitoring. Today, however, addiction has become an epidemic and a threat to current and future generations. References Brownell, K., & Gold, M. (Eds.). (2012). Food and addiction: A comprehensive handbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cartwright, E. (2014). Behavioral economics (Revised ed.). London: Routledge. Coon, D., & Mitterer, J. (2013). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior (13th ed.). Sydney: Cengage Learning. Diamond, P., & Vartiainen, H. (Eds.). (2012). Behavioral economics and its applications. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Goldstein, E. (2014). Cognitive psychology: Connecting mind, research, and everyday experience (4th ed.). Sydney: Cengage Learning. Granfield, R., & Reinarman, C. (Eds.). (2014). Expanding addiction critical essays. New York: Routledge. Heshmat, S. (2011). 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New York: Routledge. Wendel, S. (2013). Designing for behavior change applying psychology and behavioral economics. Sebastopol, Calif.: OReilly Media. Zamir, E., & Teichman, D. (2014). The Oxford handbook of behavioral economics and the law (Illustrated ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Read More