The White Australia Policy - Annotated Bibliography Example

Why did Australia Introduce the White Australia Policy in 1901? Student’s Name Course Tutor’s Name Date Introduction Different reasons are cited as to why Australia introduced the White Australia policy in 1901. To some commentators, the policy was inspired by racism on the part of the British settlers who had occupied Australia. To others, the policy was inspired by unity rather than prejudice. Some commentators (e.g. Griffiths (2006)) allude to the probability that the policy was used to enhance national cohesion, security and stability, which would be fostered through the unity of race, culture, political systems and customs. The section below contains a list of eight annotated sources, which indicate the reasons that some authors indicate as having caused the introduction of the White Australia policy in 1901. Notably, literature sources do not agree on the exact main reason why the policy was introduced. However, and as can be seen from the bibliography below, it would appear that racism (which was subtly referred to as creation of a homogenous white Australia), and/or the need to protect the British population from the competitiveness of the Asian immigrants was the reason why the White Australia policy was introduced. As Griffith (2006) notes however, the truth about the real motivation why the White Australia policy was introduced may never be known; however, it would appear that commentators of the same are not too far from the truth, especially because the reasons can either be race-inspired, protectionist, or both. Outline Introduction An introduction of the essay, the structure of the essay is indicated and the conclusion summarised Body A discussion of the different reasons cited for the introduction of the White Australia policy in 1901 A comparison of reasons for similarities and differences Own opinion based on the knowledge gained from literature regarding why the White Australia policy was introduced Conclusion Sum up the essay. An indication of what seems like the most plausible reason as to why the White Australia policy was introduced. Annotated Sources Fairbrother, K. (2012). Australia’s immigration policy following the Second World War. E-International Relations. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://www.e-ir.info/2012/12/26/australias-immigration-policy-following-the-second-world-war/ In this secondary source, Fairbrother (2012) suggests that the 1901 White Australia policy was designed and enacted with the purpose of creating an ethnically homogenous Australia. Specifically, Fairbrother (2012) argues that the White Australia policy refused non-white people entry into Australia, and was to a great degree meant to uphold the British hegemony over Australia. The policy was justified by the claim that non-European immigrants would incite social unrest, especially as they competed with white Australians for business and employment opportunities. Fairbrother (2012) however suggests that the main reason why the White Australia policy was enacted was because the British had discovered the resourceful nature that the land in Australia was. Most of the immigrants to Australia were therefore going to provide labour in the acquisition of Australia’s natural resources. The influx of immigrants from India and China was however a threat to British immigrants hence the enactment of the White Australia policy. Racism No Way (2013). The “White Australia” policy. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://www.racismnoway.com.au/teaching-resources/factsheets/59.html According to Racism No Way (2013) – a secondary source, the origins of the White Australia policy date back to the 1850s when resentment by white (British) miners towards Chinese miners culminated in violence at Lambing Flat in New South Wales and Buckland River in Victoria. The resentment that the whites had against the Chinese was fuelled by perceptions held by the former about the latter being a threat to their jobs. According to Racism No Way (2013), the non-white people were willing to accept lower wages and lower living and working conditions, hence meaning that they were too competitive for the white workers. In other words, the White Australia policy was meant to clear competition for British workers in Australia. Robertson, K., Hohmann, J. & Stewart, I. (2005). Dictating to one of ‘us’: The migration of Mrs Freer. Macquarie Law Journal 5, 241-275. In this primary source, Robertson, Hohmann and Stewart (2012) argue that the White Australia policy was not only meant to keep Australia’s population homogenously European, but also predominantly British. The article looks at the case of one Mrs Freer who appealed against the dictation test that had earlier denied her entry into Australia. In this article, the writers indicate that the main reason for the White Australia policy was to enforce a racial bar, without explicitly mentioning race. According to Robertson et al. (2005), the policy was meant to preserve the purity of the European race and their equality in standards of living. Specifically, the authors indicate that between the Pacific Islanders and the white men, there was a perceived ineradicable difference both in character and human stature and hence the white people did not want to integrate with their ‘coloured’ counterparts. Stephenson, P. (2007). The Outsiders within: Telling Australia’s indigenous-Asian story. Sydney, NSW: New South Publishing. In this secondary source, Stephenson (2007) indicates that the White Australia policy was designed and enacted to serve two functions; the first function was to prohibit non-Europeans from entering Australia, while the second function was to prohibit Aborigines from intermarrying with Islanders. Through the two functions, the White population was trying to secure a homogenous white population in Australia. According to Stephenson (2007), the White Australia policy was driven by anxiety among the white population in Australia, because they allegedly knew that the Asian population had a collective desire to “take Australia for themselves... by infiltrating the country...wrestling control” (p. 10). Stephenson (2007) further notes that the White Australia policy was to a great part inspired by the fear that whites had towards “being ‘swamped’ by outsiders” (p. 7). Stephenson notes that the growth of the Chinese population in Australia was especially alarming to the white population since it had grown to 30,000 people from 1848 to 1900. In some territories (e.g. the Northern Territory), the Chinese had outnumbered the indigenous populations and white settlers. Griffiths, P. G. (2006). The making of white Australia: Ruling class agendas, 1876-1888. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv/UQ:265385/Griffiths_thesis.pdf This thesis, which is another secondary source, argues that the White Australia policy was not inspired by working-class mobilisation or working-class racism, but by three major objectives namely: a need by Anglo-Australians to colonise the continent; a need to develop a modern labour economy in the continent; and the need to have a homogenous population. Griffith further notes that there is an inadequate literature investigation as to the reasons why the White Australia policy was enacted. Griffith however acknowledges that the policy was a result of an alliance formed among small employers, the self-employed and political organisations representing the white working class population, since they perceived Chinese labour as a threat. The thesis concludes by noting that a ruling class policy that intended to construct a homogenous population, drawn predominantly from a British background formed a major reason why Australia introduced the White Australia policy in 1901. Teicher, J., Shah, C., & Griffin, G. (2002). Australian immigration: The triumph of economics over prejudice? International Journal of Manpower 23(3), 209-236. In this primary article, Teicher, Shah and Griffith (2002) indicate that Australia introduced the White Australia policy in 1901 for multiple reasons. Among the first reasons that Teicher et al. (2002) cite is the need that prevailed among the British settlers and workers to curb the influx of Chinese people into Australia. Arguably, Teicher et al. (2002) argue that the British were acting from a point of fear, especially in relation to the perceived threat that Chinese swamping into Australia would deteriorate working and living conditions. The British had witnessed the soaring of the Chinese population into Australia in the 19th century and were therefore less willing to take any more chances. The second reason was prejudice, which sought to establish Australia as a white nation, based on the exclusion of other races. There was also an underlying notion that the new Australian race should be formed by an Anglo-Saxon race. In the paper, Teicher et al. (2002) argue that while the White Australia policy may initially have been inspired by racism, the major theme that made it more attractive to the business community who supported the politicians in the country at that time was the protection of the domestic labour market. Sargent, S. (2011). Paradoxes of white Australia, 1910-1930: With reference to the dictation test and exemption clause. 1-82. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://www.pdf.investintech.com/preview/2e2f2c97-9e77-4afd-b81e-67f3703a73fd/index.html In this primary article, Sargent (2011) starts by noting that the White Australia policy was a phrase used in reference to the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. Sargent (2011) Further notes that the policy was inspired by a desire to protect Australia’s British heritage against getting mixed up with other races, most especially the Chinese race, which was perceived as being inferior and willing to accept lesser standards than the Europeans. Additionally, Sargent (2011) argues that the policy was meant to promote the British culture, while preventing low-priced labour from making an entry into Australia. The author sums the intentions of the White Australia policy as a “Mechanism intended to keep Australia white, its workforce white and also to stop the contamination of Australia’s British heritage” (p. 16). The underlying theme in Sargent’s (2011) article is racism, and although it would appear that the working conditions were also a critical factor, it is seems that racial intolerance that the British settlers and workers had against the Chinese population was the main motivation as to why the White Australia policy was adopted. Gwenda, T (2005). White Australian Ascendant, 1901-1939. In T Gwenda (Ed.). The long, slow death of white Australia. Pp. 7-17, 242-245. Carlton North, Vic: Scribe. In this secondary source, Gwenda (2005) argues that central to the introduction of the White Australia policy was the desire to build a prosperous and strong society based on cultural and racial homogeneity. Economic self-interest and racial arrogance are further cited as the two major reasons why the British settlers and workers were so intolerant towards the Chinese people and the reasons why they continued to lobby for restricted immigration. The 1901 legislation (the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (IRA)) was thus the culmination of intense lobbying from British settlers and workers who wanted to protect their own business and economic interests, as well as uphold their perception of racial superiority. Before the introduction of the policy, Gwenda (2005) notes that there were propaganda which claimed that the Chinese people had lower living and working conditions and had an inferior culture, which the propagandists indicated would erode the cultural and social values of the British if racial tolerance was allowed. The propaganda is indicated as having played a major role in the passage and enactment of the IRA. Bibliography Fairbrother, K. (2012). Australia’s immigration policy following the Second World War. E-International Relations. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://www.e-ir.info/2012/12/26/australias-immigration-policy-following-the-second-world-war/ Griffiths, P. G. (2006). The making of white Australia: Ruling class agendas, 1876-1888. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv/UQ:265385/Griffiths_thesis.pdf Gwenda, T (2005). White Australian Ascendant, 1901-1939. In T Gwenda (Ed.). The long, slow death of white Australia. Pp. 7-17, 242-245. Carlton North, Vic: Scribe. Murphy, B. (1993). Assimilation for new arrivals, 1952-1965. In The other Australia: experiences of migration. Pp. 133-162. Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. Racism no way (2013). The “White Australia” policy. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://www.racismnoway.com.au/teaching-resources/factsheets/59.html Robertson, K., Hohmann, J. & Stewart, I. (2005). Dictating to one of ‘us’: The migration of Mrs Freer. Macquarie Law Journal 5, 241-275. Sargent, S. (2011). Paradoxes of white Australia, 1910-1930: With reference to the dictation test and exemption clause. 1-82. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://www.pdf.investintech.com/preview/2e2f2c97-9e77-4afd-b81e-67f3703a73fd/index.html Stephenson, P. (2007). The Outsiders within: Telling Australia’s indigenous-Asian story. Sydney, NSW: New South Publishing. Teicher, J., Shah, C., & Griffin, G. (2002). Australian immigration: The triumph of economics over prejudice? International Journal of Manpower 23(3), 209-236. White, R. (1981). Young, white, happy and wholesome. In R White (Ed.), Inventing Australia: images and identity, 1688-1980. Pp. 110-124. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. Read More

The resentment that the whites had against the Chinese was fuelled by perceptions held by the former about the latter being a threat to their jobs. According to Racism No Way (2013), the non-white people were willing to accept lower wages and lower living and working conditions, hence meaning that they were too competitive for the white workers. In other words, the White Australia policy was meant to clear competition for British workers in Australia. Robertson, K., Hohmann, J. & Stewart, I. (2005). Dictating to one of ‘us’: The migration of Mrs Freer.

Macquarie Law Journal 5, 241-275. In this primary source, Robertson, Hohmann and Stewart (2012) argue that the White Australia policy was not only meant to keep Australia’s population homogenously European, but also predominantly British. The article looks at the case of one Mrs Freer who appealed against the dictation test that had earlier denied her entry into Australia. In this article, the writers indicate that the main reason for the White Australia policy was to enforce a racial bar, without explicitly mentioning race.

According to Robertson et al. (2005), the policy was meant to preserve the purity of the European race and their equality in standards of living. Specifically, the authors indicate that between the Pacific Islanders and the white men, there was a perceived ineradicable difference both in character and human stature and hence the white people did not want to integrate with their ‘coloured’ counterparts. Stephenson, P. (2007). The Outsiders within: Telling Australia’s indigenous-Asian story.

Sydney, NSW: New South Publishing. In this secondary source, Stephenson (2007) indicates that the White Australia policy was designed and enacted to serve two functions; the first function was to prohibit non-Europeans from entering Australia, while the second function was to prohibit Aborigines from intermarrying with Islanders. Through the two functions, the White population was trying to secure a homogenous white population in Australia. According to Stephenson (2007), the White Australia policy was driven by anxiety among the white population in Australia, because they allegedly knew that the Asian population had a collective desire to “take Australia for themselves.

by infiltrating the country.wrestling control” (p. 10). Stephenson (2007) further notes that the White Australia policy was to a great part inspired by the fear that whites had towards “being ‘swamped’ by outsiders” (p. 7). Stephenson notes that the growth of the Chinese population in Australia was especially alarming to the white population since it had grown to 30,000 people from 1848 to 1900. In some territories (e.g. the Northern Territory), the Chinese had outnumbered the indigenous populations and white settlers.

Griffiths, P. G. (2006). The making of white Australia: Ruling class agendas, 1876-1888. Retrieved September 16, 2013, from http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/eserv/UQ:265385/Griffiths_thesis.pdf This thesis, which is another secondary source, argues that the White Australia policy was not inspired by working-class mobilisation or working-class racism, but by three major objectives namely: a need by Anglo-Australians to colonise the continent; a need to develop a modern labour economy in the continent; and the need to have a homogenous population.

Griffith further notes that there is an inadequate literature investigation as to the reasons why the White Australia policy was enacted. Griffith however acknowledges that the policy was a result of an alliance formed among small employers, the self-employed and political organisations representing the white working class population, since they perceived Chinese labour as a threat. The thesis concludes by noting that a ruling class policy that intended to construct a homogenous population, drawn predominantly from a British background formed a major reason why Australia introduced the White Australia policy in 1901.

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