Demographic, Industrial Structure and Labour Market Scenario - Essay Example

?Reviewing the Impacts Caused By Demographic, Industrial Structure and Labour Market Scenario on the Occupational Health (OH) Challenges in the UK and Its Intervention Programs Abstract Background: Occupational Health (OH) related hazards have become a crucial factor for organisational leaders to ensure higher degree of employee satisfaction, sustainability and long-run employee loyalty. Similarly, OH has also been recently considered as a vital concern for political and social leaders to ensure mortality rates and sustainable socio-economic developments of the society. Thus, various strategies concerning OH have been taken both at the industrial and at the governmental levels which are further influenced by demographics, industrial structures and labour market trends of that particular economy. With this concern, the study assessed the impacts of these aforementioned variables in the economic context of the United Kingdom in the recent phenomenon. Methods: A qualitative, literature review process has been applied in this study. Reports published by Health and Safety Executive (HSE) based on the recent changes observed in the demographics, industrial structures and labour market scenario of the UK have been regarded as valuable and reliable secondary sources in this study. Results: The results obtained in this study suggest that the strategies applied by UK governmental bodies and industrial players have been quite effective in reducing the OH risks among the workforce over the recent past. However, more in-depth studies are required to be conducted on SMEs to gain more reliable understanding of the situation. Keywords: Occupational Health (OH), Demographics, Labour Market, Industry Structure Table of Contents Abstract 2 Introduction 4 Literature Review 6 Impact of Demographics in the UK Occupational Health Trends 8 Impact of Industrial Structure in the UK Occupational Health Trends 11 Impact of Labour Market Changes in the UK Occupational Health Trends 15 Discussion 18 Conclusion 21 References 23 Appendix 29 Introduction It is often proclaimed that occupational scenarios have apparently changed since the past decades. Domains of environmental studies or those assessing the socio-cultural, economic and political circumstances, palpably advocate favourable arguments to such affirmations. The repercussion of these changes has further influenced the social-life as well as the work-life of humans to a substantial extent in the 21st century society (Bambra & et. al., 2009; Perry-Jenkins & et. al., 2000). With the increasing complexities in the managerial dimensions and the all-inclusive nature of the developing job positions, a consequent rise in job related pressure can be witnessed upon workers in the global realm. Job-stress, physical health deterioration as a result of excess work load, competition within and outside the workplace at individual levels and work-life balance have emerged as a few of the frequently argued contentious topics; not only amid organisational leaders, but also among healthcare specialists and researchers, which is subjectively referred as ‘Occupational Health’ (OH) (Hill & et. al., 2010; Murphy & Sauter, 2004). It is not always quite practical to presume or expect that people working in a particular organisation will be provided with continuous and adequate assistances from their supervisors in order to deal with work related stress. The responsibility is divided equally among organisational leaders and workers. Perhaps, owing to the continuously increasing complexities and dimensions of managerial functions, the rising stress level within workplaces seems to be inevitable, irrespective of the countermeasures implemented giving rise to various OH risks (Sparks & et. al., 2001). In the long term, these risks result in the overall health deterioration among employees, apart from causing managerial quandaries. Studies have revealed that employees working in extreme stressful conditions are quite likely to suffer various physical health problems such as lower back pain (Davis & et. al., 2011; Guzman & et. al., 2001; Waddell & Burton, 2001), musculoskeletal disorders (Punnett & Wegman, 2004), headaches, diabetes and hypertension among others (Murray, 2003). OH risks also encompass certain psychological issues apart from the aforementioned physical problems which are most commonly identified in terms of emotional imbalances and psychological distress caused due to lowering self-efficacy, anxiety, demoralisation, increased burden of responsibilities and individual-level competition within the workplace as well as imbalances between professional and personal priorities among others (Cunningham & et. al., 2002; Stansfeld & et. al., 2002; Linton, 2001). An overview of the arguments often averted in relation to OH management, as presented in the initial discussion of this review, depicts that the alterations taking place in the demographic, industrial structures and labour market stances play a vital role in determining the extent of health risks experienced by workers. Hence, a direct impact of these variables can be expected to be closely associated with the challenges as well as the strategic failures witnessed by organisational leaders and healthcare experts in dealing with OH issues in today’s context. This particular concern will be emphasised on as a base for this review which is aimed at assessing the impacts caused by demographic alterations and changes in the industrial structure as well as labour market on the OH trends in the UK. Based on the findings obtained through literature review method in this study, a few noteworthy suggestions and appraisals will also be drawn to cope up with the identified challenges in OH management. Literature Review In the recent report based on Health and Safety statistics of the UK working environment, it was revealed that despite the mechanisms implemented by the governmental bodies, healthcare institutions and organisational leaders, workers have been diagnosed with OH hazards. In a few cases, the statistical conclusions depicted lowering OH risks among workers, while in certain instances, the rate has been observed as increasing substantially over the previous years. From an overall perspective, it was observed that approximately 1.1 million people were diagnosed with job-related physical and/or psychological illness, while 173 workers were recorded to be killed due to OH risks. Additionally, 111,000 employees reported injuries caused in their workplaces as per the guidelines prescribed in Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR). As a consequence, these hazards resulted in the loss of around 27 million working days, costing approximately ?13.4 billion to the society. Undoubtedly, these illustrations depict that OH in the UK has been witnessing serious challenges that have limited the benefits of the regulations and the specifications enforced by concerned bodies, resulting in a trivial progress in the field of OH management (The Health and Safety Executive, 2012). Based on the reports documented by workers in the UK regarding their health problems which they believed to be caused or increased due to the working conditions, it was revealed that death rate of people suffering from Mesothelioma (a rare form of cancer) has increased substantially since 1983 to the year 2011. Although lesser number of workers was observed to have reported to be experiencing musculoskeletal disorders due to their work pressure, a comparatively higher rate of workers reported to be suffering from psychological illness in terms of stress, depression or anxiety as per the cases filed under Laboratory Field Services (LFS). However, a development can be observed in the falling rate of fatal and non-fatal injuries within the UK workplaces (The Health and Safety Executive, 2012) [refer to figure 1 below]. Figure 1: Self-Reported Illness Caused Or Made Worse By Work, 2011/12 (The Health and Safety Executive, 2012) Impact of Demographics in the UK Occupational Health Trends Impacts of demographical factors have been under deep scrutiny over the past few years in relation to the field of OH researches. As stated by Fingret & Smith (2002), demographic features in terms of ageing population, migration, employment market competition, increasing living costs as well as similar other variables tend to have a significant impact on the livelihood of common people causing noteworthy influences on the OH in working environment. It is in this context that the two paradigms can be observed as intertwined on the basis of its influences caused upon the requirements of workers in terms of economic benefits and also in terms of health benefits. A research conducted by Acutt & Hattingh (2004) further revealed that demographic changes tend to create a direct impact on the socio-economic demands of employees. Thus, in order to satisfy their need for well-being in the current demographic environment, workers attempt to perform extra working hours, taking in more stress than they are capable of which in turn causes OH problems. Focusing in a similar context, Crawford & et. al. (2009) stated that in most instances, workers report to suffer from stress, anxiety, low back pain and other syndromes as a result of their work pressure. These syndromes are found to differ from one age-group to another. For instance, worker population consisting of aged people are more likely to face health issues in their regular working practices in comparison to the younger age group workers. Hence, at a larger scale, a demography which comprises ageing population, is more likely to record an increasing rate of occupational heal disorders (Crawford & et. al., 2009). In relation to population growth within the UK context, it can be witnessed that the rate of change has been stable since the past few years. The two components which are observed to impose significant influences in UK’s population rise, i.e. migration and mortality rates, have also been witnessed to increase at a stable pace reporting a change of 1,359 thousand in the year 2011 than that recorded in the year 2006 (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006) [refer to figure 2 below]. Figure 2: Population Projections for the UK 2004-2031 (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006) However, when concentrating on the working population of the UK, it can be apparently observed that the population of the nation is ageing with a greater number of aged people working in the UK industries. To be illustrated, approximately, 70% of the resident people working in the UK are recorded to be aged (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006). Crawford & et. al. (2009) have also argued in this context that the proportion of ageing population in the working environment of the UK has been increasing at a much rapid pace than that compared to other groups which may be considered as a major cause for the rising number of OH hazards among workers. As per the statistical reviews obtained, the most commonly reported health hazards by the workers to RIDDOR or to LFS, are the experience of musculoskeletal diseases, back pain, anxiety, job stress and even coronary diseases (Bossaert & et. al., 2012). In the similar context, these syndromes are observed to be long-term issues according to medical professionals and therefore must have been caused or increased due to continuous exposure to working environment hazards, which are currently rising in the attention of governmental bodies with the increasing age of the working population (Kerr, 1998; Blaug & et. al., 2007). Another major influence caused due to these demographic changes witnessed within the UK has been the lesser number of population growth. As studied by Bossaert & et. al. (2012), even though the requirement for workers have been increasing substantially within the UK, because proportionate rise in the population was not witnessed over a few years, the existing workforce in the nation have to cope with increasing burden of multiple job responsibilities. This particular limitation in the demographics of the UK has led towards increasing job pressure on the existing human resources of the country, therefore augmenting the potential risks of OH hazards (Bossaert & et. al., 2012). However, on the contrary, with positive changes in the family orientation status of the UK, the rate of OH risks can be witnessed as minimizing. As stated by Finch (2002), in the 21st Century, women are also taking part as a bread-earner for their families. Therefore, with the sharing of monetary responsibilities of the family, men and women need to face lesser work pressure or require performing multiple job roles at a time. This results in substantial reduction of their job stress, giving them ample scope for work-life balancing. This particular aspect can thus be considered as one of the major contributors to the reducing number of chronic occupational diseases in the UK (The Health and Safety Executive, 2012). Additionally, women, in the 21st Century demographics of the UK tend to render lesser significance towards marriage as a social obligation deciphering an individualistic feature, owing to which, their responsibilities towards obtaining a higher earning have also reduced. Thus, they are observed to be in a less conflicting position when concerning work-life balance as compared to the early demographic scenario in the country (Finch, 2002). However, from a long-run perspective, the continuation of smaller families and lesser increase in the population may be observed to increase the work pressure upon the ageing workers or the existing labor force of the country giving rise to its OH hazards. Impact of Industrial Structure in the UK Occupational Health Trends Not only demographic changes, industrial alterations in terms of its structure also play a vital role in strongly influencing the OH trends witnessed in a particular economy. Stating precisely, industrial structure depends largely on the resources available within the economic context. When assessing the capital flow trends in relation to industrial changes, this particular aversion becomes apparent. For instance, when a particular industrial structure tends to change from capital-intensive to labour-intensive market, industrial structure tends to change significantly allowing a substantial number of labourers into the economy and therefore creating a balance between the labor flow and capital flow (Jin, 2012). Focusing on a similar context by taking into account the demographic and labour market changes in the economy, it can be apparently observed that with the reduction in the working population of the economy, the industry structure has altered significantly from being a capital intensive to a labour intensive market (Finch, 2002). Influenced by this particular aspect, Small and Medium Size Enterprises (SMEs) have increased substantially within the UK industry structure over the past few years, apparently since the year 2004. As depicted by Whysall & Ellwood (2006), approximately 4.3 million corporate entities operating in the UK during 2004 constituted 99% of SMEs which has been increasing since then at a considerable pace. It is fundamentally due to this reason that the current industrial structure observed in the UK represents a maximum number of self-employed populaces which further tends to create a positive impact in reducing the OH hazards witnessed within the country (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006). A larger number of self-employed populaces tend to increase work flexibility of individuals by minimizing their burden of being productive under given rules and restrictions. Such attributes are also quite likely to render greater satisfaction to individuals working in their preferred sectors causing lesser stress as compared to those working in large-sized organizations (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006). This might also be considered as a major cause for the reduction in the OH hazards witnessed within the UK context over the past few years, especially since 2006 (The Health and Safety Executive, 2012). This particular explanation can be better analysed with reference to the turnover rates witnessed in the various sectors of the industrial structure currently performed within the UK. The industry structure of the UK is mainly constituted with small, medium and large sized enterprises, where employee turnover rates have been witnessed as highest in the large sized organisations and higher in the medium sized organisations when compared with the performance of small enterprises. In the similar context, the rate of employment is also observed as quite high in the small enterprises sector of the UK which depicts that employee satisfaction ranks the highest in this particular sector of the UK industry structure (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006) [refer to figure 3]. Figure 3: Share of Businesses, Employment and Turnover by Size of Business, UK Private Sector, 2004 (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006) Reports published with the aim to assess the OH hazards in the UK context further revealed that SMEs in the country depict lesser level of such issues reported. It is worth mentioning with regard to the industrial structure of the nation that a majority of the SMEs are witnessed to be included in the construction sector where health hazards are considered to be quite significant (Malek & et. al., 2010; Whysall & Ellwood, 2006). Apparently, both the aspects depict dissimilar conclusions based on the OH related issues and the UK industry structure revealing a gap in the research conducted previously. Perhaps, one of the most significant reasons to this particular gap may be the inaccessibility of the reporting bodies to SMEs and its employees working within the UK industry structure (Heriot Watt University, 2007). Hence, it is quite possible that the OH issues are witnessed significantly among the employees in the SMEs sector of the UK which is recorded to be growing incessantly in its industry structure; however, those issues remain uncovered due to the non-accessibility of the research conducted. Impact of Labour Market Changes in the UK Occupational Health Trends Along with the demographic and industrial factors, labour market changes, observable in the UK working environment, can also be witnessed to impose significant influences on the OH trends in the economy. To be affirmed in this regard, it has often been witnessed that a few industrial sectors are more prone to OH hazards than other sectors. For instance, the construction industry is often criticised to possess significant threats in terms of health and safety causing high rate of fatality and injuries within the labour market scenario (Malek & et. al., 2010). Oil and gas, as well as refinery industries have also been frequently criticised due to their proneness towards safety and health related hazards. As revealed by Schouwenaars (2008) and Skrtic (2006), both these industries have recorded serious fatalities in the past due to accidents within the workplaces and also due to hazardous working environment which have often been studied to result in chronic diseases amongst workers (e.g., cancer, anxiety syndrome, hypertension, heart diseases and even psychological illness amid others). Astonishingly, the healthcare sector is also not excluded from the ill effects witnessed in terms of OH hazards. Historic evidences as well as recent studies have revealed that nurses and other medical practitioners often have to perform long hours of work under severe pressure. Where on one hand, the long working hours are examined to cause serious health hazards amongst medical practitioners such as low back pain, headache, musculoskeletal problems and other physical health related issues; on the other hand, extensive stress within the workplace causes psychological problems such as anxiety disorder among medical practitioners (Shackelton, 2010; Johnson & Lipscomb, 2006). Concentrating on the UK labour market scenario, a majority of the workforce can be identified as working in the SMEs sector. As noted in the report of Stephens & et. al. (2004), approximately 12.5 million workers are employed in the UK SMEs sector. Although the construction industry is observed to gather a larger proportion of the industry structure in the UK, it is mainly based on the self-employment labour opportunity which is further recorded as the least considered employment option in the UK market [refer to figure 4] (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006). Figure 4: Predicted Employment by Status and Gender 2004-2014 (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006) As can be observed from the above represented diagram (i.e. figure 4), a majority of the labour market population consists of full-time workers which is further forecasted to increase substantially over the next few years. Among these populaces, a majority of the percentage is acquired by male labourers. Part time employment is also quite common in the UK labour market where a majority of the worker populaces constitute female workers. Notably, a substantial proportion of the workforce in the UK labour market is comprised with teleworkers among which, a larger proportion of the workforce tend to be self-employed. It is worth mentioning in this context that teleworking is often regarded as a stressful job where the workers need to calmly deal with the problems and issues faced by their clients. The teleworking segment of the UK labour market has further been identified to possess the feature of the largest engagement of elderly labours. These particular attributes further make it more prone to OH hazards. Furthermore, another factor, which tends to make the labour market in the UK more hazardous in terms of OH, is the industrial sub-division identifiable amongst the teleworkers. For instance, most of the teleworkers are observed to be associated with either superior managerial jobs or trade related occupations which are likely to create substantial challenges in managing the workplaces effectively by keeping continuous contact with their subordinates in the organisation. Such challenges further give rise to stress among the workers and are likely to lead to health related problems in the long term (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006) [refer to figure 5]. Figure 4: Teleworking Rates by Occupation and Location of Workplace (Whysall & Ellwood, 2006) Flexibility of working hours also creates a significant influence on the OH related hazards witnessed within the UK labour market. In this context, it has been observed that a majority of the workers in the UK are facilitated with flexible working hours either on a weekly basis or in an annual basis. Certainly, this facilitates in the reduction of OH related risks by a certain extent and thus can be attributed as a major cause for the continuous reduction in the recorded workplace health issues in the UK (Goudswaard & Nanteuil, 2000). People in the UK also prefer to work on shift basis which further plays a pivotal role in reducing their stress level and the consequent workplace health hazards by a substantial degree (Bambra & et. al., 2009; Whysall & Ellwood, 2006). Discussion Deriving certain key findings from the study, it can be stated that OH hazards have been decreasing at a stable rate in the UK employment market. Various constituents can be observed to contribute in this positive reduction. For instance, the increasing individualistic characteristic witnessed among the female populaces and the lowering family expansion rates can be identified as two of the demographic features which have effectively contributed in the reduction of OH hazards in the UK. Again, labour market variables, such as increased inclination towards flexible working hours and shift working as well as teleworking, have offered workers to perform in a more comfortable, less stressful and convenient circumstances, thus reducing their risks towards OH hazards. Industrial strategies can also be appraised as a vital contributor to the reducing OH records in the UK working environment. It is worth mentioning in this context that after identifying the risks, professional associations and industrial players have initiated extensive strategies to mitigate OH hazards in their workplaces. For instance, healthcare intervention rate has been increased in the industrial segments which are reported to be prone to such hazards. Governmental policy implementations, both at the state-level and the local-level have also made sure to enhance awareness among the employers and the employees, especially those associated with the SME sector in relation to OH related consequences (Stephens & et. al., 2004). Greater emphasis on using advanced safer technologies has also been quite significant in reducing the OH risks previously faced within the UK working environment. Furthermore, recent researches have also depicted a substantial increase in the safety-first corporate culture within the UK companies which has apparently contributed to the development. Projections conducted in this context have also suggested a further decrease to such hazards with the implementation of these strategies (Lockard & Wolf, 2012). Nevertheless, the proclamation of these data through research studies has always been questionable. As stated by Whysall & Ellwood (2006), fundamentally because adequate information is not accessible through the SMEs, which is the largest employment sector in the UK, these findings suggesting a reduction in the OH risks comprise probable errors where the reality may be significantly different than that explained in the reports. Hence, better management strategies as well as healthcare intervention programs need to be conducted in the UK. As it has been observed that the workforce in the UK has been ageing over the past few years, adequate measures need to be taken to render flexible working hours and adequate assistance through healthcare awareness programs. Employers, especially those working in the SMEs sector must also be essentially informed regarding their duty towards assisting their employees in maintaining a healthy balance between their work and family which can reduce their stress level and thus minimise the OH risks substantially. Notably, UK workforces are often witnessed to be engaged with multiple shift-based jobs which eventually cause greater stress among these people, and thus should be discouraged offering better growth opportunities by the employers (Michie & Williams, 2013; Sivakumar & et. al., 2012). Furthermore, gaps in relation to the OH programs should also be identified with frequent surveying and thus requisite measures can be taken to minimise health hazards amongst employees (Kossek, 2003). Conclusion With the aim to identify the impacts caused by demographics, industrial structure and labour market scenario on the OH aspects of the UK, this study revealed various facts rendering an insight to the working environment and the consequent impact on OH standards within the economy. As per the obtained data, it can be apparently stated that risk of OH hazards depends on various attributes including the availability of jobs and the income requirements of the populaces; it also depends on the industrial growth rate as per each segment, along with the trend of workforces to get engaged with different sorts of job responsibilities in order to satisfy their requirements through adequate earning. Furthermore, these variables have been observed as depended on other attributes including the growth and developmental policies of the country, migration trends, industrial growth potentials, flexibility of job hours offered by the employers and similar other factors which make the entire paradigm a complex phenomenon of study. Moreover, the interlinked characteristics of these variables also tend to create significant alterations in the OH scenario of the economy. Perhaps, these complexity issues have been restricting the rigorous study in the UK working environment, where a major number of SMEs are observed to operate, constituting a significant proportion of the entire job market in the economy. From a realistic perspective, it can be assumed that workers in the SMEs sector are likely to be reluctant or possess least awareness about the consequences of OH risks. Even though, if the workers possess adequate knowledge regarding their rights to well-being in their working environment, the conclusion is subjected to more insightful research studies. Thus, it can be affirmed that further researches are required to assess the effectiveness of OH programs initiated within the working environment of the UK and likewise obtain adequate developmental measures in order to mitigate such risk factors effectively. References Acutt, J. & Hattingh, S., 2004. Occupational Health: Management and Practice for Health Practitioners. Juta and Company Ltd. 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[Online] Available at: http://www.hse.gov.uk/horizons/demographics.pdf [Accessed March 10, 2013]. Appendix Source: (The Health and Safety Executive, 2012) Source: (The Health and Safety Executive, 2012) Population pyramid in EU-27 in 2009 (% of the total population) Source: (Bossaert & et. al., 2012) Read More