Description and Analysis of Learning Theories - Research Paper Example

? Learning Theories Introduction Education is often perceived to play crucial role in everyone’s life. It enables an individual to adapt in the changing circumstances (Braungart & Braungart, 2007). It has always been inundated with new ideas of teaching and learning. Learning is often considered to be quite complex matter which has no specific definition. Correspondingly, a large number of special or overlapping theories are regularly being developed of which few trying to explore new ideas and ways of thinking (Illeris, 2009). Teachers are regularly struck with suggestions for reforms. They are often asked to use different curricula, new assessment and novel teaching strategies. They are constantly been directed to prepare learners for new standardized test or to assess learner’s work by way of conducting portfolios and performance assessments. They are often advised to practice research based approaches to teach learners in order to enhance their performances (Wilson & Peterson, 2006). Traditionally, learning was perceived as just acquisition of skills and knowledge whereas currently, the concept has been viewed to include emotional as well as social and various societal dimensions. Additionally, learning theories attempts to describe and understand the various ways in which the people learn. Very often, the theories are considered to be the important resource of the educational research as they have the potential to guide in constructing new educational approaches and analyzing along with improving the existing approaches and trends (Navarro & Hoek, n.d.). With this concern, the paper intends to critically explore three learning theories of Malcolm Knowles’s learning theory of andragogy, transformative learning theory of Jack Mezirow and experiential learning theory belonging to D. A. Kolb. Brief Explanation of Theories Malcolm Shepherd Knowles and the Theory of Andragogy Malcolm shepherd Knowles is often been considered as the fundamental figure in the segment of adult education particularly in the region of United States during the middle of twentieth century. During the year 1950, he was assigned with the responsibility of Executive Director of the Adult Education Association of the US. The first work of Knowles was termed as informal adult education. Later, he developed a unique theoretical basis for adult education and learning through highlighting upon the notion of andragogy. This work of his was greatly appreciated in the US. Furthermore, his work was considered to be the crucial factor that has contributed in changing the views of adult teachers from ‘educating people’ to ‘helping them learn’. Knowles was able to convince that learning practices of adults are different from those of children. He was engaged in building inclusive theory concerning with adult learning that was closely related with the features of adult learners. Earlier work of Knowles concerning ‘informal adult education’ had postulated certain basic elements of process as well as settings. Later, he intended to combine all the elements in order to propose new conceptual basis for improving the adult learning practices. The mechanism or the learning theory that postulated by him was termed as andragogy. According to Knowles, the theory concerning andragogy was primarily based upon four pioneer assumptions that were based upon the characteristics of adult learners. These assumptions were related with the adult learners that are quite dissimilar from the assumptions that dealt with the children learners (Mark K. Smith, 2002). Later, a fifth assumption was added to the theory. Thus, the five basic assumptions relating to andragogy theory that developed by Knowles have been portrayed hereunder. Self-Concept According to Knowles, the maturity that occurs in an individual with the passage of times lead towards self-concept moves wherein an individual tends to become more self-directed person from being a reliant personality (Mark K. Smith, 2002). Experience Similarly, Knowles admitted that as an individual becomes mature, he or she is able to accumulate pool of experience which contributes towards developing different learning sources (Mark K. Smith, 2002). Readiness to Learn Knowles affirmed that with the maturity in an individual, his or her readiness towards learning becomes more oriented towards their respective developmental tasks concerning social roles (Mark K. Smith, 2002). Orientation to Learning As per the observation made by Knowles, maturity within an individual leads to shift in the postponed application of skills and knowledge to closer application. It was admitted that such changes often lead towards magnificent shifts in the learning practices for subject-oriented to problem oriented (Mark K. Smith, 2002). Motivation to Learn Knowles in his last assumption stated that the maturity in an individual contributes to internal motivation to acquire in-depth insights (Mark K. Smith, 2002). Learning Theory of Andragogy Source: (Jost, 2004) Transformative Learning Theory of Jack Mezirow The Transformative Learning Theory was initially purposed by Jack Mezirow which is often acknowledged as “constructivist” theory. The orientation of constructivist theory argues that the ways in which learners interpret and reinterpret the sense of experiences often acts as the primary source for making a sensible meaning that significantly contributes towards enhancing learning practices.The transformative learning theory primarily possesses two basic learning approaches namely instrumental and communicative learning. Accordingly, it was ascertained that the facet of instrumental learning emphasis on the learning practices based on problem solving as well as on the basis of determination of affiliation between cause and effect. On the other hand, the aspect of communicative learning encompasses how persons communicate their own emotions, wants and desires (Mezirow, 1997). Mezirow related the transformative learning theory as “the process of effecting change in a frame of reference” (Mezirow, 1997). The theory primary dealt with adult learning specifically enforced in the post-secondary education. Accordingly, it was affirmed that the frame of reference consists conative, cognitive, and emotional elements. It was further stated that these frame of references were composed of two different dimensions namely ‘habit of mind’ and ‘point of view’. Accordingly, it was ascertained that the ‘habits of mind’ significantly involves customary modes of thinking, feeling abstract and acting which were persuaded by general assumptions that firmly constitute to a set of codes. It was further admitted that these codes were the consequences of cultural, social economic, political and educational outcomes (Mezirow, 1997). Mezirow stated that ‘habits of mind’ are often articulated in the form of certain viewpoints that often gives rise to the collection of belief, attitude and shapes specific interpretation. ‘Habit of mind’ was illustrated with an example which was related with the aspect of ethnocentrism. Accordingly, ethnocentrism has been viewed to be usually concerned with belief that regards other to be inferior to own group. It was firmly affirmed that frame of references are basically the consequences of the cultural assimilation as well as the idiosyncratic impact of basic caregivers. Additionally, it was stated that ‘habit of mind’ possess more long-lasting impression than the point of view. Subsequently, it was admitted that point of view are vulnerable to continuous change (Mezirow, 1997). Mezirow further affirmed that frame of references can be transformed by way of critical reflection on the theories upon which the individual’s interpretations , habits of mind, beliefs and point of view are relied on. An individual can become censoriously reflective of the theories which is either being made by individual himself or by other when learns to instrumentally solve the problems or when he is duly engaged in communicative learning. It was argued that self-reflection leads to significant transformation of an individual or a person (Mezirow, 1997). According to Mezirow, there exist four primary processes of learning. In the context of above stated ethnocentric example, one process related with learning can be derived from elaborating contemporary point of view. Second process of learning was related with forming new point of view. It was stated that one can meet a new individual and form negative meaning schemes for them. Third process was closely associated with transforming of one’s point of view. It was stated that an individual can experience another or different culture that contributes in critically reflecting upon own misconception towards other groups. This lead towards transformation of point of view which eventually leads an individual to convert himself as more tolerant or more accepting of members of the particular group of individuals. Lastly, it was argued that an individual can transform his ethnocentric habit of mind through familiarizing and critical reflecting own generalized bias in a certain specific way that individual perceive over other groups (Mezirow, 1997). Transformative Learning Theory Source: (Mezirow, 1997) Experiential Learning Theory of D. A. Kolb David A. Kolb created a popular model of experimental learning theory which was based upon four basic elements namely concrete experience, reflection, observation and testing in new settings. Literally, experimental learning theory is being defined as the process wherein knowledge is generated by conversion of experience (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 1999). Accordingly, the ‘Learning Style Inventory (LSI)’ was developed to measure the different learning styles of an individual or people. These learning styles were categorized into four primary components that have been elaborated below. Diverging It has been apparently observed that the learning style concerning diverging is usually based upon the abilities of Reflective Observation (RO) and Concrete Experiences (CE). It was proclaimed that an individual possessing this particular learning style are efficient towards recognizing concrete circumstances from various point of views. This learning style is termed as diverging as an individual with such learning style are able to perform better in circumstances that demand for idea generation for example “brainstorming session”. It was firmly admitted that people with diverging learning style possess greater cultural interest and are more willing to collect new information. An individual with diverging learning style are more likely to work in groups and are also interested in acquiring personalized feedback (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 1999). Assimilating The assimilating learning style was closely related with learning abilities dealing with Reflective Observation (RO) Abstract Conceptualization (AC). It was ascertained that people with such learning style are more capable in understanding various information and are interested in placing such bulk of information in a logical as well as in a concise format. An individual with this learning style place less attention on the people and are more concerned with abstract concepts and ideas. In the context of assimilating learning, individuals or people often prefer lectures, readings and are primarily engaged in analysis of information that they attain (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 1999). Converging Similarly, Converging learning style constitutes the learning abilities based upon Active Experimentation (AE) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC). People with such learning style are relatively efficient at finding concrete uses related with ideas and assumptions. Often, it is being identified that such people possess the ability to efficiently solve problems and make reliable decisions fundamental to their findings related with particular problems. In the context of learning, such people usually prefer laboratory assignments, investigating with new ideas and deals with practical applications (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 1999). Accommodating It has been ascertained that accommodating learning style is firmly associated with learning abilities that emphasis on Concreter Experiences (CE) and Active Experimentation (AE). People with such learning style are efficient enough to learn from primary understanding and experiences. Usually, such people are willing to carry out effective plans and face critical challenges by a greater level. In relation to learning circumstances, such people generally interested to work with others in order to get assignments, attain objectives and examine other approaches for efficiently completing any sort of project (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 1999). Experimental Learning Theory Source : (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 1999). Comparison of the Three Theories It has been ascertained that the above discussed learning theories have significant implications on the learning practices of adults. In order to compare the aforesaid three theories, it has been viewed that Knowles learning theory of andragogy primarily signifies that the adult learning practice is different from the learning practices of children. On the other hand, experimental learning theory which postulated by Kolb firmly relates with describing how an individual or a group can constantly involve in self-developing during their adult years. Likewise, the transformative learning theory is primarily relied on constructivist assumptions that are fundamental to critical social theory and humanism. Moreover, it was argued in the transformative learning theory that learning practices within the children is formative and acculturating process. Conversely, it was argued that adult education is transformative. The learning theory of andragogy argued that people tends to become less dependent to self-directed with the maturity that occurs with the passage of time. The self-directed personality of learners seeks greater appreciation and encouragement from teachers. The transformative learning theory encompasses how meaning is constructed, examined and reformulated. On the other hand, experimental theory firmly argued that learners can acquire insights in any setting. Primarily the experimental theory emphasize on the different learning practices that tends to occur in hand-on environment (Schellhase, 2006). The learning theory of andragogy stated that an individual gather substantial insights from his past experiences that immensely help in solving different sorts of crucial problems. The theory postulated that children are not very rich with respect to degree of experience in comparison to adults. On the contrary, the experimental learning theory admits that learning within an adult should be based upon action, adventure and cooperative. It does not draw significant differences between the learning practices in children and adults. On the other hand, the transformative theory considers the learning practices developed from the accumulation of insights that has been result from the life crisis in the past. It can be argued that these three theories primarily deal with the experiences of the learners. However, the learning theory of andragogy deals with any sort of experience that an individual have gained from the past, while transformative learning basically relates with cognitive experiences that has been acquired by an individual through vital interaction with other social groups. Accordingly, experimental learning theory focuses on experiences that have been practically acquired by an individual. It can further be argued that these three learning theories concerns with making learners independent. Furthermore, all the three learning theories usually reduces the role of teachers as supervisors and seeks teachers to act as guide who are responsible for playing supportive role towards the learners (Kolb, Boyatzis & Mainemelis, 1999). Primarily, the learning theory of andragogy focuses on internal motivation factor of the adults supporting them to acquire valuable insights and knowledge. On the other hand, the transformative learning theory facilitates the role of teachers to be crucial. Teachers are required to understand the reflection of learners as well as promote their reflection to learners for ensuring greater understandability of relevant concepts. Conversely, the experimental learning theory can be practiced without the involvement of teachers. However, it can be argued that the learners must be capable to reflect on the experiences and must be aggressively engaged in the actions. The learning theory of andragogy states that the preferences of learners changes from subject centeredness to the problem centeredness. It was argued that children are more concerned with subject oriented, while adult’s focuses on problem oriented learning and are willing to seek in-depth insights about the concerned aspects. It was stated that learning theory of andragogy leads internal motivation to explore and find solution for problems identified. At the same time, the transformative learning theory affirms that learners are required to revise the meaning structures. Accordingly, the meaning in a sense was advocated as culturally delineated frames of references which comprise ‘meaning perspective’ and ‘meaning schemes’. Furthermore, the transformative learning theory stated that meaning schemes are generally composed of knowledge, value, feelings and beliefs that results in an effective interpretation of experiences. Usually, the meaning schemes were classified as visible signs that constitutes in framing habits within an individual (Kitchenham, 2008). Similarly, meaning perspective in the transformative learning theory is regarded as the collection of meaning schemes that makes a person to identify what is correct and what is incorrect. It was argued that rational disclosure imposes substantial impact upon the meaning perspectives. On the contrary, the experimental learning theory emphasizes on the experience obtained from the hand on wherein they share their experiences with their peers that result learners to compare their findings with the experiences of their peers and enables them to ascertain valuable insights. Nonetheless, experimental learning theory requires teachers to plan their course of actions and seeks active participation of the learners. Moreover, learners are able to relate their findings with real world fact and are eligible to draw the variation in the findings and real world practices. Undoubtedly, it can be argued that there exist greater similarities between these three learning theories. Thus, in order to facilitate the most suitable learning practices by teachers, it is crucial for the teachers and learners to have the explicit knowledge about all the three learning theories that have been discussed above. Evaluation of the Three Theories It is worth mentioning that the learning theory concerning andragogy helps in determining whether direct or indirect approaches of instructions need to be used or not. Additionally, it can be stated that if the learner does not bear adequate knowledge about the concept, then it is more preferable to use direct method of instruction. It can be argued that the theory makes clear differences between the adult and the child concerning their learning practices. Furthermore, the applicability of the theory can be identified with reference to the fact that the children usually tend to wonder at new insights, while on the other hand, adult tends to acquire an in-depth meaning from the insights they gain. It has been ascertained that with the application of learning theory concerning andragogy were quite effective at certain stages like starting of learning course, standardizing the use of terms and keeping the level of presentation simple and direct. At the same time, it can be argued that this particular theory can be applied to adult learning only (Fidishun, 2005). The most potential benefit of the application of andragogy theory can be ascertained that it helps adults to become more self-reliant rather being dependent upon teachers. The role of teachers is to examine the performance of learners and act as a guide for them. It has further been identified that the application of the theory leads towards self-orientation wherein every learner is capable to take greater responsibilities (Cenzon, n.d.). In other words, it can be affirmed from a broader perspective that the theory dealing with andragogy creates conducive environment wherein adult learners are eligible to measure their respective potential and capability at large. Teachers are required to play supportive role in terms of establishing as well as prospering mutual relationship with learners. Moreover, it has been identified that the application of the theory leads towards greater freedom to the learners where learners are able to express their queries without fear. This facilitate in the better understanding of the concepts by learners. The practice of the theory also result in reducing supervision time for teachers as the learners are well aware of their respective responsibilities and are determined to perform those duties efficiently. Unarguably, it can be stated that the application of the theory have progressive implications for both teachers and learners at large (Knowles, n.d.). Similar to the learning theory of andragogy that suggested by Malcolm Knowles, the transformative based learning theory that developed by Mezirow also emphasized upon developing adult learning practices. The most important factor related with this particular theory is that it is chiefly concerned with the learners establishing and clarifying their prior assumptions. Once the assumptions are established, efficient strategies can be formulated to transform these assumptions. In addition, the theory provides constructivist assumptions concerning the approaches relating to adult learning. The importance of the theory can also be justified with reference to the fact that the theory contributes towards differentiating various kinds of learning theories to finalities. The theory facilitates in creating culture which can be argued to be the vital aspects in motivating people and encourage them to adapt (Knowles, n.d.). It can be admitted that teachers’ role in transformative learning involves in assisting learners for making them aware of the critical assumptions. These assumptions generally include beliefs, interpretations, habit of mind and point of view of their own as well as others. Contextually, the role of teachers is to support learners’ practices in identifying frame of references. Such practices of the teachers lead towards redefining problems based on different aspects. Moreover, the theory facilitates in uniting the learners to substantially participate in discourse. Such learning practices enable developing effective judgments relating to belief. It has been ascertained that teachers can best practice the transformative theory when combine with others. However, it requires more monitoring efforts on the part of the teachers (Christie, 2004). Furthermore, it was ascertained the application of theory concerning transformative learning contributes in making the learners towards establishing self-knowledge as well as practical understanding about different social norms. Moreover, the theory facilitates in creating norms within the classroom that creates sense of respect for different culture as well as facilitate in group work among the learners. It also stimulates equal participation among the group of learners which contributes towards acquisition of knowledge and skills within the group. The theory also facilitate in promoting moral decision among the learners. It can be stated that the theory facilitate in reconstruction of personal meaning derived from formal learning practices (Indians University SouthEast, 2012). Experimental theory usually focuses on the learning practices that are primarily based upon carefully chosen experiences which are supported by reflection creation and critical examination. With the application of the experimental theory, it can be stated that learners are able to acquire knowledge with less help from their teachers. It facilitates in sharing of findings with peers that helps the learners to collect more knowledge not limited to own findings but other peers also. At the same time, learners are able to discuss and analyze their as well as others experiences that leads towards acquiring more in-depth knowledge about the subject. It can be firmly admitted that the application of the theory facilitate learners to relate their experiences with real world which result learners to explore the actual principles prevailing in the real world. Additionally, students are eligible to apply their experiences that result in validating the effectiveness of their experiences and insights by a greater level. Moreover, students will be able to relate themselves with the problem that tends to be personal, practical and social. The learners will have to encounter numerous critical difficulties and challenging situations during the course of exploring actual principles and must adopt as well as execute effective strategies to deal with them. More importantly, the learners shall be able to evaluate their own performances that facilitate them to ascertain their own progression. At the same time, it can be ascertained that the application of the experimental learning theory is quite useful in teaching practices. In order to ensure that the learners are acquainted with valuable insights, teachers are required to plan and design teaching practices in advance. This familiarizes the teachers about what tasks are required to be performing in the later stages (Avineri, n.d.). The teachers are offered with varied opportunities to constantly enhance the programs undertaken and progressively impact learner practices and growth. The teachers are able to introduce various learning techniques such as field placement, practicum and internship among others (Arnold, Warner & Osborne, 2006). Teachers are also offered with an opportunity wherein they are able to teach learners based on their own reflection. The application of the theory enables teachers to create emotional platform for learning practices among the learners in future. The theory also allows teachers to better understand the learning practices of the learners that facilitate in designing and planning of course of actions dealing with effective learning practices. Primarily, the application of the theory assist the teachers to act as an effective facilitator during the learning process as well as teachers are required to reflect their understanding back to the learners. At the same time teachers are require to display the role of guide when initiated by learners (Richmond & Cummings, 2005). Conclusion Education is a crucial aspect that helps people to adapt in different circumstances. It often contributes towards improving the understandability capability of an individual that facilitates in improving the life style of people. It is identified that in order to ensure effective learning practices, teachers should possess proper understanding of various learning theories. These theories act as the foundation for teachers to deliver education in the most prosperous ways. Accordingly, it can be stated that three learning theories are ascertained to be important in relation to adult learning practices. These three learning theories include Malcolm Knowles’s learning theory of andragogy, transformative learning theory of Jack Mezirow and experiential learning theory of D. A. Kolb. According to Knowles theory of andragogy, there are certain differences in the learning practices of children and adult. The theory argues that adults get motivated when they find to concept to be relevant for their experiences. It was also admitted that adults are able to retain knowledge more readily when they are involved in discovery rather than being only a recipient of information. The theory also emphasized on the active participation of learners rather than passive listeners. On the other hand, experimental learning theory of Kolb basically describes the four different learning styles namely concrete experience, abstract conceptualization, reflective observation and active experimentation. Accordingly, it was stated that different people follows any of the single learning style. Usually, these styles are based upon how people perceive their tasks and how their emotions response to the experiences gained by them. Likewise, the transformative learning theory that propagated by Mezirow primary focuses on two meaning structures which include perspective meaning and scheme meaning. The theory has been basically based upon moral and cultural aspects. It emphasized on the importance of teachers to identify goals and objectives of learners. The theory involves transforming of frame of references by ways of conducting critical reflections of assumptions as well as validating beliefs through discourse. Such understanding by the teachers enables them to select the most appropriate learning that is free from any impact arising from social and cultural factors. References Avineri,E. (n.d.). Exploring and implementing theories of the experiential learning cycle in the teaching of transport planning. University of the West of England, pp. 1-21. Arnold, S., Warner, W. 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Retrieved from http://infed.org/mobi/malcolm-knowles-informal-adult-education-self-direction-and-andragogy/ Mezirow, J. (1997). Transformative learning: theory to practice. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education (74), pp. 1-12. Navarro, E. O. & Hoek, A. V. D. (n.d.). On the role of learning theories in furthering software engineering education. Institute for software research, pp. 1-22. Richmond, A. S. & Cummings, R. (2005). Implementing Kolb’s learning styles into online distance education. International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 1(1), pp. 45-54. Schellhase, K. C. (2006). kolb’s experiential learning theory in athletic training education: A literature review. Athletic Training Education Journal, pp. 18-27. Wilson, S. M. & Peterson, P. L. (2006). Theories of learning and teaching what do they mean for educators. National Education Association, pp. 1-23. Read More