Analysis of Human Literacy and Learning - Literature review Example

INTRODUCTION The activities from people's professions are diverse, so are literacy and the information needed to be erudite. Human being is gregarious in nature, as they interact with each other the knowingly or unknowingly are been educated. The word discourse cannot be isolated from the definition of `literacy' according to Luria et al (2006,pg 247), the act of human speaking, behaving, writing, interacting in meaningful linguist activities comes from the background of the complete social institutions that we are made to pass through in our daily living and learning processes. The information literacy which embodies the ability of people to know the usefulness of information and identify the needs for effective evaluation has been a concern in the education world for years (Bruce 1999). Human interactions have great influences in determining how they would behave in the larger society. Their ability to learn and be literate maybe tied to the level of interactions they have and influences within their externally environment. The social learning theory has buttresses how human being behaviours are studied in relationship to the environment where the live. Herrmann et al (2007, pg 1360) argues that cognition abilities in human being come as a result of their interaction and response to relative and particular challenges in the environment. Those principles embedded in the social learning theory places emphasis on how people's cognitions are derived in lieu of surrounding environmental influences and variables. In this case, exacting behaviourism as a support for behavioural stimuli may directly and unidirectional sequentially determine response to stimulus. This goes to represent how human behaviour is simply a reaction to stimuli that are enforced externally. In essence, the Social Learning Theory proposes that there is a mediator which is also called the human cognition, this is between human stimulus and how they response. This usually places individual control over how he/she put up behaviour to respond to stimuli. Thus, human literacy both in children and adult maybe linked to their cognitive competency. By observing people have the ability to learn. This is where the social cognitive theory bases its argument. The social cognitive theory, which is an offshoot of social learning theory tend to study individual cognitive competence. Sternberg (1994), social cognition theory studies the behaviour of individuals within a social or cultural environment and focuses on those perceptions and interpretations of information they derive themselves, intra-personally, or from others interpersonally. Bandura (1989) also defined it thus, describing interaction between environment and the interactions associate with personal behaviour that is subjected to dynamic change. RATIONALES An individual literacy may be an outcome from formal learning, pedagogically, or derived informally through peer groups and other interactive medium. However, the level of social influences and environmental influence in determining their ability to have high intelligent quotient (IQ) is another issue that should be considered. For instance, people that have undergone trauma from societal maltreatment may have their ability to cope with studying and retaining a high IQ, such as the apartheid, marginalisation and other from natural disasters as what happened in hurricane Katrina, the 9/11 terror attacks in US. Thus, this study tends to achieve the following: To know the various types of literacy and how useful they are in aiding pedagogical learning ; To determine the level which social environmental factor affects an individual ability to learn and be literate; To know if social cognition is a factor of influence in determining the level of individual intelligence quotient. DEFINITION OF TERMS The word literacy, in a traditional perspective is defined as the ability of an individual to be able to read and write within a given level of proficiency, which should be adequate for good communication. There are plethora definitions for the concept. There are different typologies of literacy, which is traceable to the different activities endeavours of human beings. Thus, there are the technological literacy, calculation or mathematical literacy, ability to have scrutinising eyes and visual literacy, among many other types. Most times, adults who master posses the skill of reading and understanding what they read it is difficult for them to trace how or remember when they learnt this act of reading. People that are not acquainted with the skill, finding it difficult in exhibiting dexterity, comes with memories that sometimes bring embarrassments and causes pains. Literacy in individual can be traced to ones childhood. For a child, the learning process of those things around his environment begins as soon as he is born. This learning process is a continual one that last all the entire life span of the child. Then children that have an environment and background that are culturally, economically, and linguistically diverse may end up having the problem of developing good reading acumen and academic soundness. LITERATURE REVIEW The social cognitive theory is known to have generated from the social learning theory. The developmental phases of human life is a time learning, and this learning process is a continued one; whereby there are formal learning process from educational institutions, and knowledge derived from the impartation of ideas by tutor or that gotten through self study. The social cognitive theory studies the individual within a social or cultural context and focuses on how people perceive and interpret in formation they generate themselves (intrapersonal) and from others (interpersonal) (Sternberg, 1994). The tenets of the theory is that is expresses how influences from those imagined, implied or actual implied perception we form on other form bases on which our thoughts ,behaviour and feelings are formed. Thus, Bandura (1989), defines the theory as a combination of triadic influences, subjected to changes in the environment and attracts reciprocity interaction with those individual attributes that forms ones behaviour in relations to his environment. The theory adopts behaviourist tendencies that react as a medium of behaviour that is subject to regulation in antecedent through the processes that are cognitive. The constructivist learning theory, also related to the social cognitive theory, is a new phase of theories on educational learning. ``The latest catchword in educational circle is `constructivism' applied both to learning theory and to epistemology- both to how people learn and to the nature of knowledge'' (Hein, 1991). Constructivism as a term indicates those ideas that learners form in their knowledge built up for themselves. In other words those undergoing learning process form meanings for themselves. Focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/ lesson to be taught) Independence in meaning associated with knowledge has a link with ones experience that comes from his personal experience of those acquired from the immediate community that goes to influence his behaviour. Constructivist theory requires that we turn our attention the constructionist view stemmed from the concern of many social psychologists, constructionist perspectives. They are discontent with the political implications of human experimentation, and choose instead to explore the ways in which reality is constructed within the society (Gergen, 1996). ORIGIN AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE THEORIES The Social learning Theory precede the social Cognitive Theory. In fact, the Social Cognitive Theory is generated from the Social learning Theory. The Social learning Theory has a rich historical background darting back to the late 1800's. Social Psychologists made immense contribution to the development of the theory. Crosbie- Brunnett & Lewis (1993), the works of William James in the 1890 formed the among those initial contributions of learning theory. This lays the foundation for contemporary social leraning theory and gives explanation to how environment plays great influential role in individual personal behaviour. The legacies laid by Gestaltist in the field of theory were further developed by Kurt Lewis (1890-1947). Lewis brought about a change in individual psychology and the processes they pass through. Miller and Dollards's publication of Social Learning and Imitation in 1941 officially launched the unit of the study in the behavioural field. Here, Social Learning Theory principles were incorporated into reinforcement, punishment, and extinction and imitation model. The book give an explanation on observations stemming out from humans and animals models showing the influence from environmental reinforcements on human behaviours and this act as a model for studying human, even including animals observations. Responses could serve as stimuli for other organisms. Furthermore, the publication has it that human behaviour responses to stimuli are spurred by drives as responses to others they interact with. The work of Miller and Dollard broadened the symbiotic relationship that the environment where human lives and their behaviour output, within a mediating channels. Thus, the work came with flood of different versions of Social Learning Theory. As already mentioned Social Cognitive Theory stemmed from the social learning theory. According to Stone (1998), the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) emanates from the psychology field of study with social psychologists as earlier contributors to building up the subject. Albert Bandura, a social psychologist has contributed immensely to the development of Social Cognitive Theory. In fact he officially launched the Social Cognitive Theory in 1986 with his book `Social Foundation of Thought and action: a social cognitive theory'. To Stone (1998), ``Bandura's Social learning theory lays emphasis on major concepts associated with cognition. Banduras’ theory hinges on exp3reinces that people both young and old share, and how this influences how they behave and development within the society they live. The SLT theory initially adopts the pattern of explicit models in social learning. Many other germane concepts were introduced by Banduras. These include “determinism, and self-efficacy”. ``Bandura renamed his Social Learning Theory (SLT), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT).... He did the change of name to make a clear mark of difference from his new found theory from the behavioural method. KEY COMPONENTS OF THE THEORIES. The social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continues reciprocal interaction between cognitive behavioural, an environmental influences (Bandura, 1977). ``The Social Learning Theory evolves in line with behavioural approach. This embraces theories associated with psychology, that is used in explaining the reason for human being and animals act in any particular way (Stone, 1998). The Social Learning Theory posits that stimulus and human responses have a medium that contribute to controlling behaviour. To Stone (1998), there are several versions of the Social Learning Theory, currently researchers subscribe and share three basic tenets: Firstly, rewards and punishments as form of human responses have the influence in patterning human behaviour in a particular way. As they will naturally embrace rewards and abhor punishments. Secondly, people learn by observing others, and also partake in activities that is jointly executed. (learning by observing others is called Vicarious learning), Thirdly, people are prone to copy others behaviour that they seem to like, and thus live the way they model behaviour lived. SOURCE: Huitt, 2002. APPLICATION OF THE THORIES FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTIONERS Theories are propounded to act as a means for solving an identified problem. Thus, theorizing the social learning theory and the social cognitive theory, it is seen that both theories stand to meet and proffer solution to an identified social need. The social learning theory has been widely used in explaining the reason why wide aggression and disorders in ones psychology occur and how these affect the way people behave. Many training programs have adopted the concepts associated with this theory in forming the basis for the techniques. ( Bandura, 1969, 1973). Example of social learning situation is illustrated when viewers of television commercials on product adverts tries to imitate the looks of the actors in the advertisement, by buying the advertised product, in order to look like the actor(s). The medical field has also widely used the tenets of the theory in treating people with influences from alcoholism, drugs and recommend medical therapies. Social cognitive theory has been successful in the study of human values and their morals. Those concerning children; it is argued that the greatest contribution of the theory is its aid in understanding how children are socialized to accept the standards and values of their society. (Johnston, et al., 1997, as quoted by Stone, 1998). LIMITATION OF THE THEORIES. The Social Cognitive Theory and the Social Learning Theory has been criticized for its comprehensiveness and complexity which makes it difficult to put into operation. Furthermore, many application of the Social Cognitive Theory focus on one or two constructs, such as self- efficacy, while ignoring the others (Stone, 1998). RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study utilised a qualitative approach in drawing conclusions to drawn questions. In this study, quantitative approach was not used since the study relived on secondary data and information from previously conducted relevant studies. Conclusion and interpretation on the drawn research questions were based on secondary data gathered from other scholars work. Source Of Data This study used secondary data that are derived from textbooks, journals, good online sources, government releases, and educational institution publications. FINDING This study was able to find out that: The environment where an individual lives and the influences from social cognition are major factors that contribute to literacy and learning process, and these go on to determine how adequate an individual should be literally. Determinants of human intelligence to learning are multi dimensional. Cultural background contributes to how an individual perceives him/herself in terms of intelligence quotient. Thus, the level of ones confidence contributes to how intelligence is displayed. Emotional intelligence is great aspects that contribute to our general level of intelligence. Environmental factors are great influences that determine how an individual is literate and their ability to perform adequately in their educational learning. Social cognition has a positive significant in contributing to ones ability to learn and be literate. REVIEW OF SAUDI ARABIA VIEW ON THE TEACHING OF READING Saudi Arabia a Middle East country is mainly an Islamic state where their learning ad reading is mostly carried out in Arabic language and curriculum. There are many expatriate teachers in Saudi Arabia. Since English language is not widely spoken, there are few percentage of people in this Arabian country that can adequately communicate in English. According to Joy (1985) cited in McKay & McKay (1992 pg 10), “the biggest problem and challenge facing expatriates teachers who lecture language (such as English) in Saudi Arabia is the general lack of literacy among the people”. In a bid to transact adequate business in the international market, most Saudi Arabia companies encourage some of their staff both morally and financially to study English Language. “Since Saudi Arabia has a fairly high illiteracy rate, and since some students there are paid by their employers to acquire reading skills in English” (McKay & McKay 1992 pg 110). Expatriate language teachers most times have good jobs practising their profession. There are large proportions of expatriate teachers in Saudi Arabia. “in Saudi Arabia one-third of their language teachers were Americans, one-third British, and one-third Saudi Arabians” (Joy 1985, pg 28, cited in McKay & McKay 1992 pg 110). In Saudi Arabia, males have more of literate individuals than their female counterpart. There are estimated 50 per cent of female that are literate in the country, while there are 72 per cent of male that are literate (UNDP 2003, cited Unlike in western societies, Saudi Arabian like other Middle East states has restrictions on the liberty women enjoy. Women rights and responsibilities in regard to their education is a thing of controversy as the gap between them and their male counterparts is widened. Some social upheavals that have plagued Middle East countries, and those in the Gulf States in the past 50 years, where the discovery of oil in these countries, have led to the change in lifestyles of Saudis, also affecting pattern of education in the country. According to Hamdan (2005), as a result of high revenue from oil, the Saudi government in the 1970s gave education opportunities to many boys and girls. However, many reforms didn’t bring about much change in the education of women in this country. At all levels of education the female education was under the Department Of Religious Guidance, not until 2002 when changes were made. But for their male counterparts the Ministry of Education were in charge (ibid). Women are been excluded from public life and this has affected the operation of teaching and education of women in this society, unlike the equal rights t education and other privileges that both men and women enjoy in society such as Australia. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AUSTRALIA AND SAUDI TEACHING AND READING As highlighted above while the Australian state is more egalitarian and provides equal opportunities for both male and female to be educated through formal teaching and reading, in Saudi Arabia the female folks are restricted, while their male folks have more liberty to education. Thus, teaching and reading in such society as Saudi would not be considered broad and all encompassing in terms of the availability of teaching and reading to everyone in the society. Further Analysis Do the effects from our social environments and social cognition affect ones ability to acquire adequate literacy? From the analyses of the tenets of the cognition theory it is argued that it encompasses attention, memory and motivation, spans both cognitive and behavioural frameworks. SLT emphasis is placed on the need to observe and model human behaviour, attitude, and emotional The Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. ``Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. The component processes underlying observational learning are: Attention, including modelled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional values) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) Retention , including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal, Thus based on the above description from the argument above, we conclude and accept the proposition that the environment where an individual lives and the influences from social cognition are major factors that contribute to literacy and learning process, and these go on to determine how adequate an individual should be literally. What are the determinants of ones ability to have high intelligent quotients? Human beings generally are gifted with the cognitive ability to learn fast. According to Herrmann et al (2007, pg 1360) this is called the cultural intelligence hypothesis. In his words, ``Humans especially powerful skills of social-cultural cognition early in ontogeny thus serve as a kind of `bootstrap' for the distinctively complex development of human cognition in general''. Human emotions have been identified through research to be a factor that determines how well we perform. Emotional intelligence brings a new dimension in the assessment of human intelligence. According to Stuart & Paquet (2001) ``emotional intelligence highlights those emotional, personal, social and survival features of human intelligence, which are germane for the daily functioning of our primary cognitive sphere of intelligence''. Thus, emotional intelligence enables us to have the ability to understand ourselves and to understand those around us. This is a vital aspect of literacy and learning. Furthermore, in a cross cultural research on intelligence attributable to people of different society and cultural background, Neto et al (2009 ) found out that while some people in place like Asia have quiet and mild showcasing of their intelligence, those from Europe are tend to be more boisterous and showy on their attained level of intelligence. This they conclude has brought about reclusion for those who have lost self confidence in line with their perceived level of intelligence. ``Having an accurate appraisal of ones own cognition ability can particularly benefit those who through little or no feedback on their actual abilities hold erroneous beliefs that inhibit or handicap their performance''. How social environmental factor do affects an individual ability to be literate? Environmental variables such as culture, economical wellbeing of a country, social life style, technological development, political inclination and setting of the state and geographical and population density are factors in the environment that affects our everyday living. These dynamics in the environment can be linked to the formal school environment. And their effect on how well organized a school environment would go a long way in determining how conducive the immediate school environment would be adequate for learning. In a project conducted by marks et al (2001) to examine the relationship between factors relating to tertiary entrance performance and environmental demography, socioeconomic, education and psychology, in aspect of literacy and numeric achievement it is found out that the three main dimensions of socioeconomic environmental factors -including ones parental occupational status, ones parents educational background, and wealth are in correlation relationship with tertiary entrance performance. And parental occupational status is more influential to child ability to performance in tertiary entrance. Furthermore, the report of marks et al (2011) shows that some ethnic perform very well more than others in the entrance exam to tertiary institutions. It stated that `students with fathers born in non-English speaking countries have higher performance than those students whose fathers are born in Australia. ''. Also, the improvement in entrance exam performance for Asian students are attributed to the rise in the level of socioeconomic backgrounds as against to the former results before the improvement. Thus, the above research report has shown that environmental factors are great influences that determine how an individual is literate and their ability to perform adequately in their educational learning. Does social cognition contribute to ones ability to learn and be literate? It has been proved that culture has a major influence on education and literacy. Cognition and culture goes hand in hand. In the Vai project conducted by Schribner & Cole (1981) concludes that there are clear link between cognitive skills in association with literacy. However, this literacy may not necessarily be in the four walls of a classroom. The duo was able to relate cognition and culture. Thus, the question arises in their project where they ask whether literacy is a factor that contributes in shaping the human mind. They also ask if the mastery of a written language affects but the process of our thinking and the content of our thoughts. The Vai population who posses different script of learning was used as a case study. Thus the conclusion researched is that despite the fact that this script was taught at home, rather than in an organised learning institution the separation of school based education from literacy. The Vai culture which allows certain practices to reoccur frequently, this gives the development of particular skill. The application of a particular skill repeatedly leads to mastery of the act. For instance, in the Vai community their culture encourages the use of letter writing through their own local script. This practice as a way of communication has really encouraged the peoples' literacy in writing, reading and learning. Thus, it is concluded that social cognition has a positive significant in contributing to ones ability to learn and be literate. CONCLUSION While this study was able to link and provide a background showing that human literacy and learning have a connection with their cognition. Also, environmental variables have great influence in determining how one would perform in learning and the general literacy. References: Bandura, A. (1977), Social learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press. Banduras, A. (1969), principles of Behavior Modification. New York : Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Banduras, A. (1973), Aggression: A social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- hall. Banduras, A. (1989), “Social Cognitive Theory” in Annuals of child Development (Vol. 6, pp 1-60) Banduras, A. (1989), “Social Cognitive Theory” in Annuals of child Development (Vol. 6, pp 1-60) Bruce, Christine S. 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Marks, Gary et al (2001) “Tertiary Entrance Performance: The Role of Student Background and School Factors” LSAY Research report Number 22, November. p://www.edna.edu.au/edna/referral/advsearch/http://www.acer.edu.au/documents/LSAY_execsum22.pdf. (13-05-10) McKay, Sandra & McKay Sandra Lee (1992) Teaching English Overseas: An Introduction Oxford University Press. Neto, Felix et al (2009) “Estimating One’s Own and One’s Relatives’ Multiple Intelligence: A Cross-Cultural Study from East Timor and Portugal” In the Spanish Journal of Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 2 Schribner A. & Cole, M. (1981) The Psychology of Literacy, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Sternberg, R. (1994), In search of the human mind. Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Sternberg, R. (1994), In search of the human mind. Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Stone, Danice (1998), “ Social Cognitive Theory” (http://hsc.us.edu/~kmbrown/social_Cognitive_Theory_overview.htm) ( 12tthNovember, 2005) Stuart, A.D. & Paquet, A. (2001) “Emotional Intelligence As A Determinant Of Leadership Potential” In Journal of Industrial Psychology Volume 27, Number 3. UNDP (2003), “Saudi Arabia: Women in public life. In United Nations Development Programme on Governance in the Arab Region”. http://www.undp-pogar.org/ countries/saudi/gender.html [12 -09-2003]. Woodward, W. R. (1982), The discovery of social behaviorism and social learning theory, 1870-1980. American psychologist, Vol.37, no 4, pp 396-410. Read More