Ending Gender Isolation: The Struggle for Equal Rights of Women in America - Essay Example

Ending Gender Isolation: The Struggle for Equal Rights of Women in America The battle for the individual rights of women is one of long standing and none of us should countenance anything which undermines it. Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) America is often considered by the rest of the world as a shining example of gender equality and feminism. Whilst in many regions in the world, women were still dealing with issues such as genital mutilation, lack of access to reproductive health, state and religion sanctioned differential treatment between men and women, America has taken striding and definitive steps to ensure that women are offered the same possibilities and opportunities as men. However, the plethora of rights available to women in the United States of America was not handed over to them in a silver platter – it was the outcome of decades, even centuries, of struggle for equal rights and equal opportunities. It was made through the pioneering efforts of brave women who refused to be constrained by circumstances and who demanded the right to exercise their agency and chart their own destiny. This paper traces the evolution of equal rights in America and the progress that women have made in the face of numerous challenges and barriers to their development. It will look in particular into how the social and legal norms have initially been complicit in creating gender differentials and how women have overcome these and have in fact been able to reshape social structures and the legal system in order to advance their cause. If we begin to trace the root of gender differentiation, and even subordination, it is imperative to consider the notion of gender as social construct and see how men and women are assigned different social roles and are treated or considered differently because of perceived biological differences. As expressed by Lorber (1994) – Western society’s values legitimate gendering by claiming that it all comes from physiology – female and male procreative differences. But gender and sex are not equivalent, and gender as a social construction does not flow automatically from genitalia and reproductive organs, the main physiological differences of females and males. In the construction of ascribed social statuses, physiological differences such as sex, stage of development, color of skin, and size are crude markers. (p. 56) As a result of this, women were then considered less able than men to hold jobs, embark on careers, make decisions, and hold public office. This was also why male children were mostly preferred over the female children. While America can in no way be compared to China, wherein girl babies were being killed by their parents, there still used to be a bias against girl children. Women have been considered as the weaker sex, unable to carry out masculine tasks and duties requiring intellectual development. In the past, a little girl would learn from her mother that a woman’s place was at home – doing household work like cooking and cleaning and watching over young children. Confrontini (2006) articulated it profoundly when he said that these “dichotomous, mutually exclusive categories that shape our understanding of the world are gendered and they are key to the production and reproduction of violence at all levels” (p. 333). This cultural pressure to be a homemaker and not to aspire to work professionally or to yearn for achievements such as those done by men was what impacted on access to education by girls vis a vis boys. According to the Women’s International Center. Formal education for girls historically has been secondary to that for boys. In colonial America girls learned to read and write at dame schools. They could attend the masters schools for boys when there was room, usually during the summer when most of the boys were working. By the end of the 19th century, however, the number of women students had increased greatly. Higher education particularly was broadened by the rise of womens colleges and the admission of women to regular colleges and universities. In 1870 an estimated one fifth of resident college and university students were women. By 1900 the proportion had increased to more than one third. (1994). In the 1920’s, the women’s suffrage movement, after steadfast campaigning and lobbying was able to claim the right to suffrage for women. The agitation for the cause had began at the end of the civil war, and while gains had been clinched at state levels, it was in the year 1920 when the 19th Amendment was incorporated into the United States Constitution, stating: “"The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." This was an important legal victory that had been won, solidifying the ranks of women and articulating the gender cause in mainstream arenas. Whilst there are suggestions that the suffrage movement did not challenge women’s status or role in the household, it should nevertheless be considered “the most radical program for women’s emancipation possible in the nineteenth century.” (DuBois, 1975, p. 63). The challenge to women’s traditional role in the household came much later, when contemporary feminism called for a reexamination of gender norms that categorized women as homemakers, child-bearers, nurturers. In the 1960’s, a radical change would then take place. The sexual revolution had begun – with women keen to prove themselves and reclaim their space. They were exploring previously-forbidden terrain, celebrating their sexuality and diversity and resisting institutions that continue to suppress their rights. The Pill, or the contraceptive medication, had come into fashion – thus pushing women to discover new sexual frontiers and exercise her agency and autonomy even more. It has been argued that the pill had enabled more women to take on professional occupations. To quote Goldin and Katz (2000), “young women’s control over their fertility directly reduced the costs to them of engaging in long term career investments. The pill also served to increase the age at first marriage and thus indirectly reduced a potential penalty of delaying marriage to pursue professional training.” (p. 461). Alongside that and helping this process along, crucial pieces of legislation were passed. The Equal Pay Act, which was enacted in 1963, prohibits employers from discriminating workers in terms of payment based on their gender. (Wyer, 2008, p. 119). It requires that employees pay workers same pay for jobs requiring equal skills, responsibilities and efforts. The Equal Pay Act is overseen by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission which requires employers to keep their records of work and payment. Another regulation towards women progress in science, mathematics and engineering careers relates to clause VII of the Civil Rights Act enacted in 1964. This act forbids discrimination on the basis of gender when hiring, promoting, assigning or firing employees. Women in these career fields have been affected by pregnancy and discrimination. However, by 1978 the law was amended and now provides that pregnant women should not be discriminated against, instead giving them the opportunity to receive the same benefits as men. It is impossible to talk about women’s emancipation without talking about sexual violence and the historical development of laws that address the same. In the past, rape laws had been criticized by women scholars for being anti-women. Feminists who have called for the reform of rape law have demonstrated that “the law of rape historically has regulated competing male interests in controlling sexual access to females, rather than protecting women’s interest in controlling their own bodies and sexuality”. (Roberts, 1993, p. 359). A good example of this is the way rape cases are prosecuted and the evidence required to convict a rapist. Because rape often takes place in confined and private places, there is a greater probability in rape cases than in other criminal cases that there would be no other witness but the victim himself or herself to testify to the veracity of the claims. Hence, there is a greater deal of subjectivity and in many cases, the victim herself feels as if she is put on trial – with the truth and acceptability of her testimony dependent on how closely she resembles society’s perception of how a woman should be and behave, and how she fits into her assigned gender role of meekness and virginity. Although there have been significant reforms – e.g., rape within the context of marriage is now deemed possible – there are still many challenges that remain. Indeed, these challenges are important reminders to us that the struggle is not over for women’s emancipation and for the end to women’s isolation. Whilst there are laws in place against gender discrimination and these laws have made it possible for women to move past the household and develop new frontiers, societal perceptions have proven to be more difficult to budge. On the one hand, more and more women are being elected or appointed into public office. Hillary Clinton and Condoleeza Rice are famous examples in contemporary U.S. politics. And yet, on the other hand, more insidious – perhaps invisible -- forms of gender discrimination take place. Sexualization of the girl-child in media still persists, and little girls are deluged with messages that they have to look a certain way (thin, pretty, feminine) in order for them to be accepted in society. For as long as these issues remain, women are not completely liberated and free and the struggle continues. References Confortini C.C. (2006) “Galtung, violence, and gender: the case for a peace studies/feminism alliance”. Peace and Change 31(3) 333-367. Dubois, E. (1975). “The Radicalism of the Woman Suffrage Movement: Notes towards the reconstruction of nineteenth century feminism.” Feminist Studies. Vol. 3 (1). 63-71. Goldin, C. and Katz, L. (2000). “Career and Marriage in the Age of the Pill”. The American Economic Review. Vol. 90(2), Papers and Proceedings of the One Hundredth Twelfth Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association. 461-465. Lorber, Judith. (1995). Paradoxes of Gender. New Haven: Yale University Press. Roberts, D. (1993) “Rape, Violence and Women’s Autonomy”. Chicago-Kent Law Review. 69. 359-388. Women’s International Center. Women’s History in America, (1994). Retrieved from http://www.wic.org/misc/history.htm Wyer, Mary. (2008). Women, science, and technology: a reader in feminist science studies. London: Taylor & Francis. Read More