International Relations Theory and the Environmental Crises - Research Paper Example

International Relations Theory and the Environmental Crises It would not be wrong to say that there are two notions about relating IR to environmental crises. The first says that no IR theory in particular explains environmental issues and ethics or there is no such global politics in particular that addresses global environmental crises that our world is facing today. However the second one suggests the approach IR has adopted towards understanding environmental issues is based upon a regime theoretical framework and therefore does not provide any insight into the practical approach. Therefore the main purpose of this paper is to consider IR to the extent where it to its best capabilities bridges the gap between IR theory and ecological thought. The main ecological challenges of the deterioration of the physical health of the environment is still not analysed in the context of a full-fledged ecological crisis. Let us start analysing the critical situation of our physical environment through various warning signs that emanate from nature including the warming of global climate, thinning of the stratospheric ozone shield, accelerating loss of biodiversity, acidification of fresh water lakes, soil erosion, desertification, and many others (Laferriere & Stoett, 1999, p. 3), IR theorists have remained unable to concentrate on the upcoming environmental crises. The study of the environmental crises in relation to the IR can be initiated by understanding the notion that the underlying causes of ecological degradation are political and wherever they are not, are followed by the human consequences of natural disasters. Many theorists believe that such 'attacks on nature' indicates commitment to material growth and state power, which requires the systematic control and use of human and non-human nature. Therefore IR theory tells us that 'Positivist' theories are most likely the ones to replicate IR epistemology and are aimed to a limited extent to consider the methods adopted by the natural sciences. Realism and Environmental Crisis While emphasising on state security and power issues, realist like E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau mentioned in their works that the way states are seeking and maximising their power, they are self interested and little bothered about ecological realities. This way we see that examining the congruence between realism and environmental crisis requires an appraisal of key realist assumptions and recommendations, and hence of their likely implications for the state of the world. The concept of security that is produced in the classic realist texts of the immediate post-war period is clearly dependent on the container schema. However, it is equally clear that the compelling nature of the realist discourse is dependent not on one single schema and derived metaphors, but on a densely interconnected network of schemas and metaphors which are not static but have their own inferential dynamics (Beer & Hariman, 1996, p. 209). That means realism supports all kinds of power seeking techniques inclusive of all weapons of mass destruction. If we analyse the environmental crisis in the light of Darwinian studies of evolution, it is clear that we would find a solid basis which support both 'realist' theories of international relations and 'rational choice' approaches throughout the social sciences (Masters, 2004). IR policy suggests that if policy is perceived as a strict response to international structure, it is to argue that there need be no direct connection between a realist perspective in international affairs and one's particular ideological affinity in the 'domestic' sphere. This has been a controversial argument made about Hobbes which represents either realism's greatest strength or its greatest weakness, depending on one's interpretation. Despite this acceptance of facts based upon differences in social stature and power relations, realists believe that history is mainly responsible for a series of recurrences which has only produced cycles of natural and environmental destruction resulting in from war. Whether it be international systems change or global affairs human motivations have caused violence to be their constant source of expressing destruction. Realism defines environmental crisis in the light of a materialist worldview, whose survival is paramount, but does not exceed the priority of salvation by deflecting physical forces through the application of more force. Political realists believe that each and every individual in a power seeking society upholds a detrimental effect upon the Earth through its exploiting or otherwise affecting most of its terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Santos & Miller, 1999, p. 3). Whether directly or indirectly, negligently or intentionally, every human activity that is caused for and because of the deterioration of the natural environment and the extinction of many species is responsible for contributing towards the environmental crisis. Defining environmental threats in terms of positivist theories like realism is illustrated by the following: Commoner, a biologist, studied the growth rates of a large number of economic processes and placed the blame for the present condition of the environment on post-World War II developments in technology (Santos & Miller, 1999, p. 65). According to him, technology has promoted a variety of products and activities whose environmental effects are singularly detrimental. These new products and activities replaced older ones whose effects on the environment were relatively benign. In general, new technologies rely heavily on artificial energy sources and generate large quantities of non biodegradable wastes. Commoner examined aluminium and showed that its production required six times more energy and generated several times more pollution than the production of steel. In spite of these drawbacks, society prefers aluminium because it has numerous advantages for packaging and construction and for its resistance to rust (Santos & Miller, 1999, p. 65). The above illustration proves the notion that Realist theory supports and is conscientious to the environmental crisis we are facing today, for sacrificing a sustainable natural environment is what it takes to keep on with security and power issues. Liberalism/ Idealism/ Neoliberalism and Environmental Crisis Although liberalism after acknowledging the destructive effects of World War I, imposed some limitations to prevent war among nations, but that does not refer that we should stop expecting situations where the deprived ones are laying waste to territory with burning crops and homes and killing animals. What liberalist theories propose is the balance of human power in practicing violence, this way they do bother about environmental crisis but to a limited extent. Neoliberalism, which is more logical and positivist sees environmental crisis in the light of violent human behaviours which have long been demonstrated by their capacity and willingness to engage in organised violence against one another (Barkawi & Laffey, 2001, p. 195). That means liberal theories unlike realism more clearly talks about the consequences of destruction. Liberalism believes in a balance or maintaining a sequence of equilibrium. This definition supports the threat which we are facing today. The rate of exponential increase in human population at 1.5 percent annually indicates that such continuity with the sheer mass of all living humans, in a few thousand years, would be greater than the mass of the Earth. This population explosion, in many respects, is one of the rudimentary causes of environmental problems. Holding all other variables constant, humans will eventually affect the environment; larger populations will consume enormous quantities of resources and will subsequently generate more pollution and with a zero population growth, society could concentrate on improving environmentally benign technology while raising the quality of its services. A liberal theory supports equilibrium in this aspect too. Post-Positivist Theory and Environmental crisis Post positivist theories emphasises upon shared norms, values of their states and the proper usage of those norms to regulate international relations. The emergence of the third wave of environmentalism involves humanity's awareness of its biomass, and the anti population policies that are sparked by this concern. Post-positivist theories evaluate those concerns that are generally not discussed in public. Example, the population crisis concern may increase demand for environmental laws, which can sometimes infringe on reproductive rights, therefore population policies are generally topics that politicians are not willing to discuss. This is not to say that the population issue has not come up indirectly in other ways for instance, in funding for famine relief and aid for family counselling but that there has never been a need felt for zero population growth. In fact, the vast majority of environmentalists advocate wilderness preservation and antipollution policies rather than population control. A number of population alarmists have proposed their brand of population policies to deal with overpopulation and resource scarcity in society. Now the question that arises here is that from where those policies come from Such policies are devised by post-positivist theorists who after focussing on humanitarian intervention advocate order and sovereignty in the social context. Post-positivist theories explain various measures to deal with environmental problems and this it does by dividing the nations into three groups: One that is capable of dealing with their population problems, second that could deal with population problems but require foreign assistance, and third, nations that are truly in an extreme predicament, where even foreign aid cannot help them to achieve self-sufficiency. Under the triage policy, when environmental resources are severely limited, foreign aid is provided to solve population problems for nations that can be saved, such as those in group two. Therefore post-positivist theories like Constructivism and critical theory contributes directly in understanding environmental crisis. Constructivism in IR condemns compulsions, the suspicions and anxieties engendered by the nuclear weapons race, and believe that might easily lead to catastrophic consequences. Another source of instability that needs to be contained is our neglect of the worldwide environmental crisis. Lack of stewardship of non renewable energy resources and pollution of our water and atmosphere threatens to undermine the environment as a support system for civilised living (Beer & Hariman, 1996, p. 65). Beer & Hariman (1996) suggests that "Such environmental destructiveness reflects the character flaws of an undisciplined people living beyond their means, spending themselves into a disastrous budgetary deficit, and becoming inundated by uncontrolled immigration of great masses of people of wholly different cultural and political traditions" (Beer & Hariman, 1996, p. 65). That indicates the distrust caused by the hands of democracy, however, ignores the destructive influences of capitalism and industrialisation on the environment, fails to recognise environmentalism as a democratic movement, and overlooks the terrible environmental degradation occurring within disciplined, authoritarian societies. Post-realism visualises the existence of a totalitarian alternative to be problematic symbolically to the extent that freedom and democracy are characterised rhetorically as succumbing to unhealthy influences. That which is inherently frail and feeble, as a function of unbridled emotionalism, irrational impulses, and moralistic sensibilities, needs a totally antiseptic environment free of foreign ideological germs to insure against its demise. Political realism has its own limitations and analysing Kennan's political realism gave us an idea that in a democratically constituted polity, political realism can be traced to the key assumption that emotion is a sickness of the masses that must be contained by the rational management of power in the pursuit of objective national interests. Simply put, he lacks any positive regard for the deliberative role of political rhetoric in the conduct of civic affairs, for that would acknowledge the existence of impassioned rationality in the affairs of state a notion that is reduced to oxymoronic nonsense (Beer & Hariman, 1996, p. 67). This is what Kennan believes opposing objective reality to subjective feelings. Thus, Kennan cannot appreciate the essential strength of democracy that interests are composed in deliberation and that competing interests necessarily vie for adherence through the agency of fallible arguments grounded in human sentiment. Instead, he chooses to mask the operation of emotion in a facade of objective realism, reducing an essential influence to a base and dangerous flaw of human nature. The Best explanation of Environmental Crisis Each theory at its place visualises the issue. Particularly if we talk about political realists, the emergence of an international indigenous voice along with the responsiveness of power elites indicates a change in the flow and distribution of power and the context in which responsiveness occurs. If indigenous activism is bringing about a transformation of the meaning of something as fundamental to the world international system as 'development' or 'war against threat', then the content of the normative beliefs underlying world order may also be changing. If world order as we know it today is essentially the product of an expanding European influence, then indigenous activism, among other things, suggests that world order must come to terms with the influence of non-European perspectives, norms, beliefs, and values if it is to be an inclusive order. Such things as excessive capitalism, the destruction of local cultures and identities, the majoritarian democratic model which has been replaced by a model of ethnic pluralism in South Africa, for example are all called into question by the increased participation and influence of non European peoples. And if indigenous peoples' influence is a consequence of rhetorical practices, rather than the use of force or the control of state institutions, then we must admit that, international politics is beginning to look less like the anarchic environment portrayed by realism and more like a civil society, although an imperfect one. Therefore I personally believe that the way Post-positivist theories have started bridging the barriers towards sustainability is appreciable, for at least they are aware of how to address the environment crisis. References/ Bibliography Barkawi Tarak & Laffey Mark, (2001) Democracy, Liberalism, and War: Rethinking the Democratic Peace Debate: Lynne Rienner: Boulder, CO. Beer A. Francis & Hariman Robert, (1996) Post-Realism: The Rhetorical Turn in International Relations: Michigan State University Press: East Lansing, MI. Laferriere Eric & Stoett J. Peter, (1999) International Relations Theory and Ecological Thought: Towards a Synthesis: Routledge: London. Masters Roger, (2004) "Survival of the Fittest" In: Harvard International Review. Volume: 26. Issue: 2. Santos A. Miguel & Miller M. Randall, (1999) The Environmental Crisis: Greenwood Press: Westport, CT. Read More